Combining a nanoparticle-mediated immunoradiotherapy with dual blockade of LAG3 and TIGIT improves the treatment efficacy in anti-PD1 resistant lung cancer

Superior antitumor immune response achieved with proton over photon immunoradiotherapy is amplified by the nanoradioenhancer NBTXR3

Recent findings suggest that immunoradiotherapy (IRT), combining photon radiotherapy (XRT) or proton radiotherapy (PRT) with immune checkpoint blockade, can enhance systemic tumor control. However, the comparative efficacy of XRT and PRT in IRT remains understudied. To address this, we compared outcomes between XRT + αPD1 and PRT + αPD1 in murine αPD1-resistant lung cancer (344SQR). We also assessed the impact of the nanoparticle radioenhancer NBTXR3 on both XRT + αPD1 and PRT + αPD1 for tumor control and examined the tumor immune microenvironment using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq). Additionally, mice cured by NBTXR3 + PRT + αPD1 were rechallenged with three lung cancer cell lines to evaluate memory antitumor immunity. PRT + αPD1 showed superior local tumor control and abscopal effects compared to XRT + αPD1. NBTXR3 + PRT + αPD1 significantly outperformed NBTXR3 + XRT + αPD1 in tumor control, promoting greater infiltration of antitumor lymphocytes into irradiated tumors. Unirradiated tumors treated with NBTXR3 + PRT + αPD1 had more NKT cells, CD4 T cells, and B cells, with fewer Tregs, than those treated with NBTXR3 + XRT + αPD1. NBTXR3 + PRT + αPD1 also stimulated higher expression of IFN-γ, GzmB, and Nkg7 in lymphocytes, reduced the TGF-β pathway, and increased tumor necrosis factor alpha expression compared to NBTXR3 + XRT + αPD1. Moreover, NBTXR3 + PRT + αPD1 resulted in greater M1 macrophage polarization in both irradiated and unirradiated tumors. Mice achieving remission through NBTXR3 + PRT + αPD1 exhibited a robust memory immune response, effectively inhibiting growth of subsequent tumors from three distinct lung cancer cell lines. Proton IRT combined with NBTXR3 offers enhanced tumor control and survival rates over photon-based treatments in managing αPD1-resistant lung cancer, indicating its potential as a potent systemic therapy.

LAG-3 : recent developments in combinational therapies in cancer

The study of anticancer immune responses and in particular the action of immune checkpoint inhibitors that overcome T cell inhibition has revolutionized metastatic patients' care. Unfortunately, many patients are resistant to these innovative immunotherapies. Over the last decade, several immune checkpoint inhibitors, currently available in the clinic, have been developed, such as anti-PD-1/PD-L1 or anti-CTLA-4. More recently, other immune checkpoints have been characterized, among them lymphocyte activation gene 3 (LAG-3). LAG-3 has been the subject of numerous therapeutic studies and may be involved in cancer-associated immune resistance phenomena. This review summarizes the latest knowledge on LAG-3 as an immunotherapeutic target, particularly in combination with standard or innovative therapies. Indeed, many studies are looking at combining LAG-3 inhibitors with chemotherapeutic, immunotherapeutic, radiotherapeutic treatments, or adoptive cell therapies to potentiate their antitumor effects and/or to overcome patients' resistance. We will particularly focus on the association therapies that are currently in phase III clinical trials and innovative combinations in preclinical phase. These new discoveries highlight the possibility of developing other types of therapeutic combinations currently unavailable in the clinic, which could broaden the therapeutic spectrum of personalized medicine.

Implementation of a High-Accuracy Targeted Gene Expression Panel for Clinical Care

This study describes the validation of a clinical RNA expression panel with evaluation of concordance between gene copy gain by a next-generation sequencing (NGS) assay and high gene expression by an RNA expression panel. The RNA Salah Targeted Expression Panel (RNA STEP) was designed with input from oncologists to include 204 genes with utility for clinical trial prescreening and therapy selection. RNA STEP was validated with the nanoString platform using remnant formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded-derived RNA from 102 patients previously tested with a validated clinical NGS panel. The repeatability, reproducibility, and concordance of RNA STEP results with NGS results were evaluated. RNA STEP demonstrated high repeatability and reproducibility, with excellent correlation (r > 0.97, P < 0.0001) for all comparisons. Comparison of RNA STEP high gene expression (log2 ratio ≥ 2) versus NGS DNA-based gene copy number gain (copies ≥ 5) for 38 mutually covered genes revealed an accuracy of 93.0% with a positive percentage agreement of 69.4% and negative percentage agreement of 93.8%. Moderate correlation was observed between platforms (r = 0.53, P < 0.0001). Concordance between high gene expression and gene copy number gain varied by specific gene, and some genes had higher accuracy between assays. Clinical implementation of RNA STEP provides gene expression data complementary to NGS and offers a tool for prescreening patients for clinical trials.

Enhancing X-Ray Sensitization with Multifunctional Nanoparticles

In the progression of X-ray-based radiotherapy for the treatment of cancer, the incorporation of nanoparticles (NPs) has a transformative impact. This study investigates the potential of NPs, particularly those comprised of high atomic number elements, as radiosensitizers. This aims to optimize localized radiation doses within tumors, thereby maximizing therapeutic efficacy while preserving surrounding tissues. The multifaceted applications of NPs in radiotherapy encompass collaborative interactions with chemotherapeutic, immunotherapeutic, and targeted pharmaceuticals, along with contributions to photodynamic/photothermal therapy, imaging enhancement, and the integration of artificial intelligence technology. Despite promising preclinical outcomes, the paper acknowledges challenges in the clinical translation of these findings. The conclusion maintains an optimistic stance, emphasizing ongoing trials and technological advancements that bolster personalized treatment approaches. The paper advocates for continuous research and clinical validation, envisioning the integration of NPs as a revolutionary paradigm in cancer therapy, ultimately enhancing patient outcomes.

Advancing non-small cell lung cancer treatment: the power of combination immunotherapies

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains an unsolved challenge in oncology, signifying a substantial global health burden. While considerable progress has been made in recent years through the emergence of immunotherapy modalities, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), monotherapies often yield limited clinical outcomes. The rationale behind combining various immunotherapeutic or other anticancer agents, the mechanistic underpinnings, and the clinical evidence supporting their utilization is crucial in NSCLC therapy. Regarding the synergistic potential of combination immunotherapies, this study aims to provide insights to help the landscape of NSCLC treatment and improve clinical outcomes. In addition, this review article discusses the challenges and considerations of combination regimens, including toxicity management and patient selection.

Regulatory mechanisms of PD-1/PD-L1 in cancers

Immune evasion contributes to cancer growth and progression. Cancer cells have the ability to activate different immune checkpoint pathways that harbor immunosuppressive functions. The programmed death protein 1 (PD-1) and programmed cell death ligands (PD-Ls) are considered to be the major immune checkpoint molecules. The interaction of PD-1 and PD-L1 negatively regulates adaptive immune response mainly by inhibiting the activity of effector T cells while enhancing the function of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells (Tregs), largely contributing to the maintenance of immune homeostasis that prevents dysregulated immunity and harmful immune responses. However, cancer cells exploit the PD-1/PD-L1 axis to cause immune escape in cancer development and progression. Blockade of PD-1/PD-L1 by neutralizing antibodies restores T cells activity and enhances anti-tumor immunity, achieving remarkable success in cancer therapy. Therefore, the regulatory mechanisms of PD-1/PD-L1 in cancers have attracted an increasing attention. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the roles of the PD-1/PD-L1 signaling in human autoimmune diseases and cancers. We summarize all aspects of regulatory mechanisms underlying the expression and activity of PD-1 and PD-L1 in cancers, including genetic, epigenetic, post-transcriptional and post-translational regulatory mechanisms. In addition, we further summarize the progress in clinical research on the antitumor effects of targeting PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies alone and in combination with other therapeutic approaches, providing new strategies for finding new tumor markers and developing combined therapeutic approaches.

Application of nano-radiosensitizers in non-small cell lung cancer

Radiotherapy stands as a cornerstone in the treatment of numerous malignant tumors, including non-small cell lung cancer. However, the critical challenge of amplifying the tumoricidal effectiveness of radiotherapy while minimizing collateral damage to healthy tissues remains an area of significant research interest. Radiosensitizers, by methods such as amplifying DNA damage and fostering the creation of free radicals, play a pivotal role in enhancing the destructive impact of radiotherapy on tumors. Over recent decades, nano-dimensional radiosensitizers have emerged as a notable advancement. Their mechanisms include cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase, combating tumor hypoxia, and others, thereby enhancing the efficacy of radiotherapy. This review delves into the evolving landscape of nanomaterials used for radiosensitization in non-small cell lung cancer. It provides insights into the current research progress and critically examines the challenges and future prospects within this burgeoning field.

Identification of the novel biomarkers involved in the mitochondrial metabolism-related reactive oxygen species and their role in lung cancer T-cell exhaustion and immunotherapy

Purpose

To study the role of mitochondrial metabolism and obtain novel biomarkers in immunotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

Methods

We collected the 188 genes involved in mitochondrial metabolism(MMGs) from the MSIGDB project and then quantified the activity of mitochondrial metabolism. All the NSCLC patients were divided into C1 and C2 clusters based on the 26 prognosis-related MMGs. The differences in biology, differential immune microenvironment, chronic hypoxia and prognosis between C1 and C2 patients were also analyzed. In addition, we validated the results of bioinformatics analysis in lung cancer tissues and cell lines.

Results

Patients in the C2 cluster had a higher level of mitochondrial metabolism. Patients in the C2 cluster responded better to immunotherapy and had a lower level of T-cell exclusion. The markers of T-cell failure were upregulated in the C1 patients. Hypoxia can lead to a high percentage of C1 patients. ADH1C might be involved in mitochondrial metabolism and immunotherapy response, which can be affected by hypoxia, making it an underlying biomarker. The expression levels of ADH1C in BEAS-2B, H1299, A549 and H460 cells were detected, revealing that ADH1C is upregulated in lung cancer cells. We observed that patients with low ADH1C expression had a longer survival time. The enzyme activities of HK, PK, LDH and SDH were significantly reduced in H1299 and H460 cells with ADH1C knockdown, along with more ROS. Furthermore, the expression levels of PD-L1 and HHLA2 in tumor tissues were analyzed, which found that ADH1C was significantly positively correlated with the expression of PD-L1 and HHLA2.

Conclusions

In summary, our study comprehensively explored the molecules involved in mitochondrial metabolism and their role in immunotherapy and T lymphocyte failure.

Dual immunotherapy in advanced or metastatic non-small cell lung cancer: A network meta-analysis

Objectives

Recently, there has been extensive research on dual immunotherapy for advanced or metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), yet a comprehensive evaluation is lacking. This study aimed to rank the available treatment options and assess the efficacy and safety of dual immunotherapy regimens through the implementation of a Bayesian network meta-analysis (NMA).

Materials and methods

A thorough search was conducted to recognize eligible randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on March 20, 2023. Overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS), treatment-related adverse events (TRAEs) and grade ≥3 TRAEs were evaluated to identify the efficacy and safety of dual immunotherapy regimens. The surface under the cumulative ranking curve (SUCRA) and P score were employed to rank the treatments.

Results

Eleven clinical trials involving six different regimens were included in this study. The combination of anti-programmed cell death protein 1/programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) antibodies with anti-T-cell immunoglobulin and ITIM domain (TIGIT) antibodies emerged as the most promising regimen for improving OS and PFS, followed by anti-PD-1/PD-L1 + anti-cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) + chemotherapy treatment and anti-PD-1/PD-L1 + anti-CTLA-4 treatment. The forest plots demonstrated that these three regimens were all superior to chemotherapy. The above results were observed in both unselected treatment line and first-line settings. The least likely to be associated with TRAEs and grade ≥3 TRAEs were respectively anti-CTLA-4 treatment and anti-PD-1/PD-L1 + anti-TIGIT treatment, with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 + anti-CTLA-4 + chemotherapy treatment to be the worst.

Conclusions

This NMA validated the promising efficacy and safety of dual immunotherapy in advanced or metastatic NSCLC. Among them, anti-PD-1/PD-L1 + anti-TIGIT regimen emerges as a highly potential therapeutic approach. Ongoing research efforts should focus on improving treatment regimens, identifying biomarkers, and managing TRAEs to optimize the patient benefits of dual immunotherapy.

Lymphocyte-activation gene 3 (LAG-3) as a promising immune checkpoint in cancer immunotherapy: From biology to the clinic

In recent years, there have been notable advancements in the field of cancer immunotherapy, namely in the area of immune checkpoint inhibition. The Lymphocyte-activation gene 3 (LAG-3) has garnered attention as a potentially valuable focus of study in this particular field. The present study examines the biological aspects of LAG-3, its clinical consequences, and the potential therapeutic opportunities associated with its modulation. LAG-3, similar to CD4, has a regulatory role in modulating the immune system. The upregulation of this protein inside the neoplastic milieu hampers the immune system's ability to mount an effective response, hence enabling the evasion of cancer cells from immune surveillance. The LAG-3 protein interacts with ligands, inhibiting cytotoxic immune cells such as CD8+ T cells and NK cells. The potential of LAG-3 inhibitors presents intriguing prospects. Integrating these medicines with established treatments like PD-1/PD-L1 or CTLA-4 inhibitors can broaden the range of available therapy choices and address resistance issues. The advent of personalized therapy is imminent, as evidenced by the utilization of predictive biomarkers such as LAG-3 expression to inform individualized therapeutic approaches. Additionally, inhibitors of LAG-3 exhibit promise in addressing immunological depletion and resistance by revitalizing T cells and producing durable immune responses. The realization of LAG-3's promise necessitates global collaboration and equal access. Multinational trials are expected to ascertain the efficacy of the intervention in various patient groups.

Radiotherapy-activated NBTXR3 nanoparticles promote ferroptosis through induction of lysosomal membrane permeabilization

PURPOSE

Radiotherapy-activated NBTXR3 (NBTXR3 + RT) has demonstrated superior efficacy in cancer cell destruction and tumor growth control, compared to radiotherapy (RT), in preclinical and clinical settings. Previous studies highlighted the immunomodulatory properties of NBTXR3 + RT, such as modification of tumor cell immunogenicity/adjuvanticity, producing an effective local tumor control and abscopal effect, related to an enhanced antitumor immune response. Furthermore, NBTXR3 + RT has shown potential in restoring anti-PD1 efficacy in a refractory tumor model. However, the early events leading to these results, such as NBTXR3 endocytosis, intracellular trafficking and primary biological responses induced by NBTXR3 + RT remain poorly understood.

METHODS

We analyzed by transmission electron microscopy endocytosis and intracellular localization of NBTXR3 nanoparticles after endocytosis in various cell lines, in vitro and in vivo. A kinetic of NBTXR3 endocytosis and its impact on lysosomes was conducted using LysoTracker staining, and a RNAseq analysis was performed. We investigated the ability of NBTXR3 + RT to induce lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP) and ferroptosis by analyzing lipid peroxidation. Additionally, we evaluated the recapture by cancer cells of NBTXR3 released from dead cells.

RESULTS

NBTXR3 nanoparticles were rapidly internalized by cells mainly through macropinocytosis and in a less extend by clathrin-dependent endocytosis. NBTXR3-containing endosomes were then fused with lysosomes. The day following NBTXR3 addition, we measured a significant increase in LysoTracker lysosome labeling intensity, in vitro as in vivo. Following RT, a significant lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP) was measured exclusively in cells treated with NBTXR3 + RT, while RT had no effect. The day post-irradiation, a significant increase in lipid peroxidation, a biomarker of ferroptosis, was measured with NBTXR3 + RT compared to RT. Moreover, we demonstrated that NBTXR3 nanoparticles released from dead cells can be recaptured by cancer cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide novel insights into the early and specific biological effects induced by NBTXR3 + RT, especially LMP, not induced by RT in our models. The subsequent significant increase in lipid peroxidation partially explains the enhanced cancer cell killing capacity of NBTXR3 + RT compared to RT, potentially by promoting ferroptosis. This study improves our understanding of the cellular mechanisms underlying NBTXR3 + RT and highlights its potential as an agnostic therapeutic strategy for solid cancers treatment.

A combined analysis of multi-omics data reveals the prognostic values and immunotherapy response of LAG3 in human cancers

Lymphocyte-activation gene 3 (LAG3) is a highly anticipated immune checkpoint in the context of cancer, exerting regulatory control over immune cell proliferation and function to reinforce the advancement of cancers. However, the comprehensive functional analysis of LAG3 across various cancer types remains undisclosed; thus, this study aims to investigate the pan-cancer expression profile of LAG3. We have investigated the expression profile, prognostic significance, and genetic alterations of LAG3 in various cancers while elucidating its characteristic in immune response regulation. Our findings demonstrated that elevated LAG3 expression is significantly associated with favorable prognosis in patients with cutaneous melanoma (SKCM), and it may be a potential biomarker for SKCM. Furthermore, multiple immune algorithms have highlighted the important regulatory role of LAG3 for the tumor-infiltrating immune cells including CD8 + T cells, B cells, dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages, and natural killer (NK) cells. We also examined the distribution of LAG3 at the single-cell level and explored its functional significance. A comprehensive and systematic analysis of LAG3 would facilitate a comprehensive evaluation of LAG3 in cancer biology and provide valuable insights for cancer management.

Immune checkpoints and cancer immunotherapies: insights into newly potential receptors and ligands

Checkpoint markers and immune checkpoint inhibitors have been increasingly identified and developed as potential immunotherapeutic targets in various human cancers. Despite valuable efforts to discover novel immune checkpoints and their ligands, the precise roles of their therapeutic functions, as well as the broad identification of their counterpart receptors, remain to be addressed. In this context, it has been suggested that various putative checkpoint receptors can be induced upon activation. In the tumor microenvironment, T cells, as crucial immune response against malignant diseases as well as other immune central effector cells, such as natural killer cells, are regulated via co-stimulatory or co-inhibitory signals from immune or tumor cells. Studies have shown that exposure of T cells to tumor antigens upregulates the expression of inhibitory checkpoint receptors, leading to T-cell dysfunction or exhaustion. Although targeting immune checkpoint regulators has shown relative clinical efficacy in some tumor types, most trials in the field of cancer immunotherapies have revealed unsatisfactory results due to de novo or adaptive resistance in cancer patients. To overcome these obstacles, combinational therapies with newly discovered inhibitory molecules or combined blockage of several checkpoints provide a rationale for further research. Moreover, precise identification of their receptors counterparts at crucial checkpoints is likely to promise effective therapies. In this review, we examine the prospects for the application of newly emerging checkpoints, such as T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3, lymphocyte activation gene-3, T-cell immunoreceptor with Ig and ITIM domains (TIGIT), V-domain Ig suppressor of T-cell activation (VISTA), new B7 family proteins, and B- and T-cell lymphocyte attenuator, in association with immunotherapy of malignancies. In addition, their clinical and biological significance is discussed, including their expression in various human cancers, along with their roles in T-cell-mediated immune responses.

The immunogenic radiation and new players in immunotherapy and targeted therapy for head and neck cancer

Although treatment modalities for head and neck cancer have evolved considerably over the past decades, survival rates have plateaued. The treatment options remained limited to definitive surgery, surgery followed by fractionated radiotherapy with optional chemotherapy, and a definitive combination of fractionated radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Lately, immunotherapy has been introduced as the fourth modality of treatment, mainly administered as a single checkpoint inhibitor for recurrent or metastatic disease. While other regimens and combinations of immunotherapy and targeted therapy are being tested in clinical trials, adapting the appropriate regimens to patients and predicting their outcomes have yet to reach the clinical setting. Radiotherapy is mainly regarded as a means to target cancer cells while minimizing the unwanted peripheral effect. Radiotherapy regimens and fractionation are designed to serve this purpose, while the systemic effect of radiation on the immune response is rarely considered a factor while designing treatment. To bridge this gap, this review will highlight the effect of radiotherapy on the tumor microenvironment locally, and the immune response systemically. We will review the methodology to identify potential targets for therapy in the tumor microenvironment and the scientific basis for combining targeted therapy and radiotherapy. We will describe a current experience in preclinical models to test these combinations and propose how challenges in this realm may be faced. We will review new players in targeted therapy and their utilization to drive immunogenic response against head and neck cancer. We will outline the factors contributing to head and neck cancer heterogeneity and their effect on the response to radiotherapy. We will review in-silico methods to decipher intertumoral and intratumoral heterogeneity and how these algorithms can predict treatment outcomes. We propose that (a) the sequence of surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy should be designed not only to annul cancer directly, but to prime the immune response. (b) Fractionation of radiotherapy and the extent of the irradiated field should facilitate systemic immunity to develop. (c) New players in targeted therapy should be evaluated in translational studies toward clinical trials. (d) Head and neck cancer treatment should be personalized according to patients and tumor-specific factors.

Nanoparticle-enhanced proton beam immunoradiotherapy drives immune activation and durable tumor rejection

The combination of radiation therapy (RT) and immunotherapy has emerged as a promising treatment option in oncology. Historically, x-ray radiation (XRT) has been the most commonly used form of RT. However, proton beam therapy (PBT) is gaining recognition as a viable alternative, as it has been shown to produce similar outcomes to XRT while minimizing off-target effects. The effects of PBT on the antitumor immune response have only just begun to be described, and to our knowledge no studies to date have examined the effect of PBT as part of a combinatorial immunoradiotherapeutic strategy. Here, using a 2-tumor model of lung cancer in mice, we show that PBT in tandem with an anti-PD1 antibody substantially reduced growth in both irradiated and unirradiated tumors. This was accompanied by robust activation of the immune response, as evidenced by whole-tumor and single-cell RNA sequencing showing upregulation of a multitude of immune-related transcripts. This response was further significantly enhanced by the injection of the tumor to be irradiated with NBTXR3 nanoparticles. Tumors of mice treated with the triple combination exhibited increased infiltration and activation of cytotoxic immune cells. This triple combination eradicated both tumors in 37.5% of the treated mice and showed robust long-term immunity to cancer.

Co-inhibition of TIGIT and PD-1/PD-L1 in Cancer Immunotherapy: Mechanisms and Clinical Trials

Over the past decade, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have emerged as a revolutionary cancer treatment modality, offering long-lasting responses and survival benefits for a substantial number of cancer patients. However, the response rates to ICIs vary significantly among individuals and cancer types, with a notable proportion of patients exhibiting resistance or showing no response. Therefore, dual ICI combination therapy has been proposed as a potential strategy to address these challenges. One of the targets is TIGIT, an inhibitory receptor associated with T-cell exhaustion. TIGIT has diverse immunosuppressive effects on the cancer immunity cycle, including the inhibition of natural killer cell effector function, suppression of dendritic cell maturation, promotion of macrophage polarization to the M2 phenotype, and differentiation of T cells to regulatory T cells. Furthermore, TIGIT is linked with PD-1 expression, and it can synergize with PD-1/PD-L1 blockade to enhance tumor rejection. Preclinical studies have demonstrated the potential benefits of co-inhibition of TIGIT and PD-1/PD-L1 in enhancing anti-tumor immunity and improving treatment outcomes in several cancer types. Several clinical trials are underway to evaluate the safety and efficacy of TIGIT and PD-1/PD-L1 co-inhibition in various cancer types, and the results are awaited. This review provides an overview of the mechanisms of TIGIT and PD-1/PD-L1 co-inhibition in anti-tumor treatment, summarizes the latest clinical trials investigating this combination therapy, and discusses its prospects. Overall, co-inhibition of TIGIT and PD-1/PD-L1 represents a promising therapeutic approach for cancer treatment that has the potential to improve the outcomes of cancer patients treated with ICIs.

The artificial intelligence and machine learning in lung cancer immunotherapy

Since the past decades, more lung cancer patients have been experiencing lasting benefits from immunotherapy. It is imperative to accurately and intelligently select appropriate patients for immunotherapy or predict the immunotherapy efficacy. In recent years, machine learning (ML)-based artificial intelligence (AI) was developed in the area of medical-industrial convergence. AI can help model and predict medical information. A growing number of studies have combined radiology, pathology, genomics, proteomics data in order to predict the expression levels of programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), tumor mutation burden (TMB) and tumor microenvironment (TME) in cancer patients or predict the likelihood of immunotherapy benefits and side effects. Finally, with the advancement of AI and ML, it is believed that "digital biopsy" can replace the traditional single assessment method to benefit more cancer patients and help clinical decision-making in the future. In this review, the applications of AI in PD-L1/TMB prediction, TME prediction and lung cancer immunotherapy are discussed.

Nanoparticles overcome adaptive immune resistance and enhance immunotherapy via targeting tumor microenvironment in lung cancer

Lung cancer is one of the common malignant cancers worldwide. Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy has improved survival of lung cancer patients. However, ICI therapy leads to adaptive immune resistance and displays resistance to PD-1/PD-L1 blockade in lung cancer, leading to less immune response of lung cancer patients. Tumor microenvironment (TME) is an integral tumor microenvironment, which is involved in immunotherapy resistance. Nanomedicine has been used to enhance the immunotherapy in lung cancer. In this review article, we described the association between TME and immunotherapy in lung cancer. We also highlighted the importance of TME in immunotherapy in lung cancer. Moreover, we discussed how nanoparticles are involved in regulation of TME to improve the efficacy of immunotherapy, including Nanomedicine SGT-53, AZD1080, Nanomodulator NRF2, Cisplatin nanoparticles, Au@PG, DPAICP@ME, SPIO NP@M-P, NBTXR3 nanoparticles, ARAC nanoparticles, Nano-DOX, MS NPs, Nab-paclitaxel, GNPs-hPD-L1 siRNA. Furthermore, we concluded that targeting TME by nanoparticles could be helpful to overcome resistance to PD-1/PD-L1 blockade in lung cancer.