Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in nanomedicine for human disease and therapeutic modalities

Plant-Derived Nanovesicles: A Promising Frontier in Tissue Repair and Antiaging

In recent years, mammal-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been widely used in studies on tissue repair and antiaging. Their therapeutic potential lies in mediating intercellular communication through the transfer of various bioactive molecules. As research on nanovesicles progresses, plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) have attracted growing attention as a promising alternative. As an emerging cross-species regulatory "natural force", PDNVs have attracted considerable interest due to their excellent biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and remarkable therapeutic effects in tissue injury and aging-related diseases. In this review, we examine the bioactive components, drug delivery potential, and functional mechanisms of PDNVs, and we summarize recent advances in their applications for tissue repair and antiaging. In addition, we systematically discuss the major challenges and limitations hindering the clinical translation and industrialization of PDNVs, and we propose five strategic approaches along with future research directions. This review aims to promote further investigation of PDNVs in regenerative medicine and enhance their potential for clinical application.

Cutting-edge insights into the mechanistic understanding of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles: Implications for intestinal homeostasis

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PDELNs) are extracted from plants such as ginger, garlic, broccoli, and others, attracting attention for their therapeutic potential due to their availability and capacity for large-scale production. Their unique physicochemical properties position PDELNs as ideal candidates for targeted gut delivery, improving intestinal health by modulating mucosal immunity, gut microbiota, and intestinal barrier integrity, all essential for maintaining intestinal homeostasis. PDELNs regulate intestinal barrier function through their bioactive components (e.g. microRNAs, lipids, and proteins). These vesicles enhance the expression of tight junction proteins and stimulate mucin production. Additionally, they promote intestinal stem cell proliferation and increase the secretion of antimicrobial peptides. PDELNs also modulate inflammatory cytokine levels and immune cell activity, fostering a balanced immune response. Further, they support the growth of beneficial gut microbiota and their metabolites, while suppressing the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria. This review summarizes recent advancements in understanding the roles of PDELNs in regulating intestinal homeostasis, focusing on their impact on mucosal immunity, intestinal barrier function, and gut microbiota composition, along with underlying molecular mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Overall, PDELNs show promise as a novel approach for treating and preventing intestinal diseases, paving the way for effective gut health interventions.

Development and functional evaluation of curcumin-loaded zein-gum Arabic-flaxseed gum complex nanoparticles for anti-fatigue applications

In this study, zein-gum Arabic (GA)-flaxseed gum (FG) nanoparticles (ZGF) were prepared using the anti-solvent and electrostatic deposition methods to overcome the hydrophobicity and instability of curcumin (CUR). Additionally, the optimal mass ratio of GA to FG (4:1) and CUR to zein (1:40) was determined. Additionally, the initial concentration of the polysaccharide (0.04 %) was determined and the ZGF nanoparticles encapsulated with CUR (CUR-ZGF) were optimized. The formed CUR-ZGF nanoparticles were spherical, with a particle size of 188 nm and an embedding rate of 96.8 %. Furthermore, the CUR-ZGF nanoparticles showed excellent pH, thermal, storage, and salt stability. The encapsulate CUR exhibited antioxidant capacity and controlled release rate in the gastrointestinal digestive system in vitro. Animal experiments showed CUR-ZGF nanoparticles significantly enhanced exercise capacity and anti-fatigue effects. High-dose CUR-ZGF nanoparticles doubled exhaustion running time versus the model group, improving exercise endurance. Fatigue-related biochemical parameters (serum urea nitrogen, serum lactate, and creatine kinase) were significantly reduced, indicating rapid fatigue elimination. Meanwhile, significantly increased lactate dehydrogenase and fasting glucose levels suggested efficient energy replenishment to mitigate fatigue damage. These results indicate CUR-ZGF nanoparticles may be a promising natural anti-fatigue healthcare product in the future.

Plant-based exosome-like extracellular vesicles as encapsulation vehicles for enhanced bioavailability and breast cancer therapy: recent advances and challenges

Breast cancer remains a common and challenging disease globally among women, prompting the need for innovative and effective therapeutic approaches. Plant-based exosomes (PBEXOs) offer a promising avenue for breast cancer treatment. Derived from plant sources, these EXOs exhibit unique properties, including biocompatibility, non-immunogenicity, and inherent bioactive compounds that make them suitable for medical applications. PBEXOs have shown potential in targeting cancer cells due to their ability to transport therapeutic substances directly to tumor sites, enhancing medication effectiveness and reducing systemic adverse effects. Their natural composition allows for modifications that improve stability, targeting capabilities, and drug-loading efficiency. The advanced isolation ensures the retention of their functional properties, which is crucial for their therapeutic applications. Characterization of these EXOs further supports their potential use in oncology. In preclinical studies, PBEXOs have been successfully loaded with various chemotherapeutic drugs, demonstrating significant anti-cancer activity. Recent studies highlight the progression of PBEXOs from experimental models to potential clinical applications, with some formulations receiving regulatory attention. However, challenges such as scalability, regulatory compliance, and a comprehensive understanding of their mechanisms remain. Addressing these issues could pave the way for PBEXOs to become a standard component in the arsenal against breast cancer, offering hope for more effective and targeted therapies.

Taxus chinensis-Derived Nanovesicles Alleviate Mouse Colitis by Inhibiting Inflammatory Cytokines and Restoring Gut Microbiota

Background

Recent research has increasingly focused on plant-derived products as potential alternatives to chemotherapeutic agents, aiming to reduce side effects. Among these, plant-derived nanovesicles (NVs) have garnered significant attention for their potential in treating colitis.

Methods

In this study, we extracted NVs from the leaves (LNVs) and stems (SNVs) of Taxus, a well-known natural anti-cancer plant. The targeting ability of these NVs was evaluated in the mouse colon using an IVIS imaging system. Additionally, we assessed the therapeutic effects of these plant-derived NVs on ulcerative colitis in a mouse model.

Results

Our findings reveal that the NVs exhibit an ideal vesicle size of 150.0 nm and contain a rich array of lipids, functional proteins, and bioactive small molecules. In vitro anti-inflammatory experiments demonstrated that both LNVs and SNVs enhanced cell viability and reduced levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Importantly, neither LNVs nor SNVs induced significant cytotoxicity. In vivo, oral administration of LNVs and SNVs ameliorated colitis-related symptoms in mice and accelerated colitis resolution by suppressing the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway and reducing levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. Furthermore, 16S rDNA sequencing data suggested that LNVs play a crucial role in regulating gut microbiota.

Conclusion

Collectively, our findings suggest that plant-derived NVs from Taxus represent a promising novel natural nanomedicine for use as an anti-inflammatory agent in the treatment of colonic diseases.

The application and development prospects of extracellular vesicles in oral administration

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale phospholipid-based particles secreted by cells and are essential mediators responsible for intercellular signal communication. The rapid development of EV nanotechnology has brought unprecedented opportunities for nanomedicine. Among various administration methods, oral administration is the most convenient and simplest. However, most drugs (peptides, small molecule drugs, nucleic acids, and therapeutic proteins) greatly reduce their oral bioavailability due to the harsh gastrointestinal environment. Notably, some EVs have been shown to cross biological barriers, including the gastrointestinal tract. The distinctive biological properties of EVs make them a promising natural carrier for oral drug delivery. This review introduces the characteristics of EVs, covering their classification, production methods, and therapeutic efficacy in oral administration. Additionally, we explore the potential roles of EVs in disease prevention and treatment, as well as their future prospects in pharmaceutical applications. This comprehensive overview aims to provide insights into the application of EVs in oral drug delivery, highlighting their advantages, current progress, and the challenges that need to be overcome for successful clinical translation.

Advances in small extracellular vesicles: roles in the tumor microenvironment and epithelial ovarian cancer diagnosis and treatment

Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC), one of the most prevalent subtypes of ovarian cancer, has a 5-year survival rate of less than 30%, highlighting the urgent need for novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. The tumor microenvironment (TME), a critical regulator of tumor progression, includes various components, among which small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) serve as important molecular carriers, having gained attention as significant contributors to cancer biology. These vesicles, released by cells into the extracellular space, are pivotal in the pathogenesis of EOC. In addition, sEVs show significant promise as biomarkers and therapeutic agents for the treatment and management of this malignancy. This review explores recent advancements in the understanding of sEVs within the TME and their potential applications in the diagnosis and treatment of EOC.

Platycodon grandiflorum-derived extracellular vesicles suppress triple-negative breast cancer growth by reversing the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and modulating the gut microbiota

Despite the approval of several artificial nanotherapeutics for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), significant challenges, including unsatisfactory therapeutic outcomes, severe side effects, and the high cost of large-scale production, still restrict their long-term application. In contrast, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PEVs) exhibit promising potential in cancer therapy due to their negligible systemic toxicity, high bioavailability and cost- effectiveness. In this study, we developed an alternative strategy to inhibit TNBC via Platycodon grandiflorum (PG)-derived extracellular vesicles (PGEVs). The PGEVs were isolated by ultracentrifugation and sucrose gradient centrifugation method and contained adequate functional components such as proteins, lipids, RNAs and active molecules. PGEVs exhibited remarkable stability, tolerating acidic digestion and undergoing minimal changes in simulated gastrointestinal fluid. They were efficiently taken up by tumor cells and induced increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to tumor cell proliferation inhibition and apoptosis, particularly in the TNBC cell line 4T1. Additionally, PGEVs facilitated the polarization of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) toward M1 phenotype and increased the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Further in vivo investigations revealed that PGEVs efficiently accumulated in 4T1 tumors and exerted significant therapeutic effects through boosting systemic anti-tumor immune responses and modulating the gut microbiota whether administered orally or intravenously (i.v.). In conclusion, these findings highlight PGEVs as a promising natural, biocompatible and efficient nanotherapeutic candidate for treating TNBC.

Leveraging plant-derived nanovesicles for advanced nucleic acid-based gene therapy

Gene therapy has evolved into a pivotal approach for treating genetic disorders, extending beyond traditional methods of directly repairing or replacing defective genes. Recent advancements in nucleic acid-based therapies-including mRNA, miRNA, siRNA, and DNA treatments have expanded the scope of gene therapy to include strategies that modulate protein expression and deliver functional genetic material without altering the genetic sequence itself. This review focuses on the innovative use of plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) as a promising delivery system for these nucleic acids. PDNVs not only enhance the stability and bioavailability of therapeutic nucleic acids but also improve their specificity and efficacy in targeted gene therapy applications. They have shown potential in the treatment of various diseases, including cancer and inflammatory conditions. By examining the unique properties of PDNVs and their role in overcoming the limitations of conventional delivery methods, this review highlights the transformative potential of PDNV-based nucleic acid therapies in advancing the field of gene therapy.

The metabolic response of HepG2 cells to extracellular vesicles derived from Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef microgreens probed by chemometrics-assisted LC-MS/MS analysis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from Thai rat-tailed radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef) microgreens were previously reported as novel bioactive bioparticles against cancer. This study aimed to investigate the metabolic disruption associated with the antiproliferative effect against HepG2 liver cancer cells, a representative of metabolizing cells and tissue. In this study, the neutral red uptake assay was performed to screen for the antiproliferative effect and determine the cytotoxic concentrations of EVs against HepG2 cells. An untargeted approach to cellular metabolomics was conducted using liquid chromatography coupled with the high-resolution mass spectrometry system with multivariate and univariate analyses to determine the metabolic changes of HepG2 liver cancer cells after EV treatment. EVs showed an antiproliferative effect in HepG2 cells with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 685.5 ± 26.4 and 139.7 ± 4.2 μg/ml at 24 and 48 h, respectively. In the metabolomics study, 163 metabolites were annotated, with 61 significantly altered metabolites. Among these significant metabolites, 18 were related to glycerophospholipid metabolism. Phosphatidylcholine-the important lipid building blocks for cell membranes, lipid mediators for cell proliferation, and immunosuppressive signaling-was mainly decreased by EV treatment. The alteration of cellular phospholipids in cancer was discussed. This finding suggested the possible mechanism of anticancer action of EVs by disrupting phospholipid metabolism and survival signaling in cancer cells. Further studies should be made to confirm EVs' potential as single and combination therapy in vivo to reduce cancer resistance. This may close the gap between in vitro study and clinical setting.

Plant-derived exosomes in therapeutic nanomedicine, paving the path toward precision medicine

BACKGROUND

Plant-derived exosomes (PDEs), are nanoscale vesicles secreted by multivesicular bodies, play pivotal roles in critical biological processes, including gene regulation, cell communication, and immune defense against pathogens. Recognized for their potential health-promoting properties, PDEs are emerging as innovative components in functional nutrition, poised to enhance dietary health benefits.

PURPOSE

To describe the efficacy of PDEs in nanoform and their application as precision therapy in many disorders.

STUDY DESIGN

The design of this review was carried out in PICO format using randomized clinical trials and research articles based on in vivo and in vitro studies.

METHODS

All the relevant clinical and research studies conducted on plant-derived nanovesicle application and efficacy were included, as retrieved from PubMed and Cochrane, after using specific search terms. This review was performed to determine PDEs' efficacy as nanomedicine and precision therapy. Sub-group analysis and primary data were included to determine the relationship with PDEs.

RESULT

PDEs are extracted from plant materials using sophisticated techniques like precipitation, size exclusion, immunoaffinity capture, and ultracentrifugation, encapsulating vital molecules such as lipids, proteins, and predominantly microRNAs. Although their nutritional impact may be minimal in small quantities, the broader application of PDEs in biomedicine, particularly as vehicles for drug delivery, underscores their significance. They offer a promising strategy to improve the bioavailability and efficacy of therapeutic agents carrying nano-bioactive substances that exhibit anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, cardioprotective, and anti-cancer activities.

CONCLUSION

PDEs enhance the therapeutic potency of plant-derived phytochemicals, supporting their use in disease prevention and therapy. This comprehensive review explores the multifaceted aspects of PDEs, including their isolation methods, biochemical composition, health implications, and potential to advance medical and nutritional interventions.

Revolutionizing medicine: Harnessing plant-derived vesicles for therapy and drug transport

The emergence of extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are natural lipid bilayer membrane structures facilitating intercellular substance and information exchange, has sparked innovative approaches in drug development and carrier enhancement. Plant-derived EVs notably offer advantages including low preparation cost, low immunogenicity, flexible drug delivery, high stability, good tissue permeability, and high inherent medicinal value compared to their animal-derived counterparts. Despite these promising attributes, the research on plant-derived EVs remains fragmented and lacks comprehensive synthesis. This review aims to address this gap by summarizing the isolation methods, biological characteristics, and storage techniques of plant-derived EVs. Additionally, we explore the potential of plant-derived EVs as therapeutic agents and drug carriers for treating various diseases. Finally, we delineate the current impediments to plant-derived EV development and highlight future research directions. By providing a detailed overview, we hope to facilitate further research and application in this emerging field.

Advances in plant-derived extracellular vesicles: isolation, composition, and biological functions

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) are nanoscale vesicles released from plant cells into the extracellular space. While similar in structure and function to mammalian-derived EVs, PDEVs are unique due to their origin and the specific metabolites they carry. PDEVs have gained significant attention in recent years, with numerous reports isolating different PDEVs from various plants, each exhibiting diverse biological functions. However, the field is still in its early stages, and many issues need further exploration. To better develop and utilize PDEVs, it is essential to have a comprehensive understanding of their characteristics. This review provides an overview of recent advances in PDEV research. It focuses on the methods and techniques for isolating and purifying PDEVs, comparing their respective advantages, limitations, and application scenarios. Furthermore, we discuss the latest discoveries regarding the composition of PDEVs, including lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and various plant metabolites. Additionally, we detail advanced studies on the multiple biological functions of PDEVs. Our goal is to advance our understanding of PDEVs and encourage further exploration in PDEV-based science and technology, offering insights into their potential applications for human health.

From Bench to Bedside: The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Cartilage Injury Treatment

Cartilage repair is the key to the treatment of joint-related injury. However, because cartilage lacks vessels and nerves, its self-repair ability is extremely low. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are bilayer nanovesicles with membranes mainly composed of ceramides, cholesterol, phosphoglycerides, and long-chain free fatty acids, containing DNA, RNA, and proteins (such as integrins and enzymes). For mediating intercellular communication and regulating mechanisms, EVs have been shown by multiple studies to be effective treatment options for cartilage repair. This review summarizes recent findings of different sources (mammals, plants, and bacteria) and uses of EVs in cartilage repair, mechanisms of EVs captured by injured chondrocytes, and quantification and storage of EVs, which may provide scientific guidance for promoting the development of EVs in the field of cartilage injury treatment.

Antioxidant Effect of a Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles' Mix on Human Skin Fibroblasts: Induction of a Reparative Process

Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) from organic agriculture (without the use of pesticides and microbicides) contain high levels of antioxidants. Organic PDEVs have shown an increased antioxidant power compared to PDEVs from single plants, suggesting a synergistic effect of the bioactives constitutively expressed in the PDEVs from single fruits. With this study, we wanted to investigate the beneficial effects of a mix of PDEVs on human skin cells. We found detectable levels of citric acid, ascorbic acid, glutathione, catalase, and SOD in a mix of PDEVs deriving from five different fruits (grape, red orange, papaya, pomegranate, and tangerine). We then treated H2O2-conditioned fibroblasts with the mix of PDEVs. The results showed that the PDEVs' mixture reverted the H2O2-induced redox imbalance, restoring mitochondrial homeostasis, with a strong reduction of mitochondrial anion superoxide and an increase in sirtuin levels. The antioxidant action was consistent with wound repair on a lesion produced in a fibroblast's monolayer. This result was consistent with an increased level of vimentin and matrix metalloproteinase-9, whose expression is directly related to the efficiency of the reparative processes. These data support a beneficial role of PDEVs in both preventing and treating skin injuries through their potent antioxidant and reparative activities.

Plant‐Derived Extracellular Vesicles as Potential Emerging Tools for Cancer Therapeutics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous structures secreted by cells that play important roles in intercellular communication and material transport. Due to its excellent biocompatibility, lipophilicity, and homing properties, EVs have been used as a new generation of drug delivery systems for the diagnosis and treatment of tumors. Despite the potential clinical benefits of animal‐derived extracellular vesicles (AEVs), their large‐scale production remains sluggish due to the exorbitant cost of cell culture, challenging quality control measures, and limited production capabilities. This constraint significantly hinders their widespread clinical application. Plant‐derived extracellular vesicles (PEVs) share similar functionalities with AEVs, yet they hold several advantages including a wide variety of source materials, cost‐effectiveness, ease of preparation, enhanced safety, more stable physicochemical properties, and notable efficacy. These merits position PEVs as promising contenders with broad potential in the biomedical sector. This review will elucidate the advantages of PEVs, delineating their therapeutic mechanisms in cancer treatment, and explore the prospective applications of engineered PEVs as targeted delivery nano‐system for drugs, microRNAs, small interfering RNAs, and beyond. The aim is to heighten researchers’ focus on PEVs and expedite the progression from fundamental research to the transformation of groundbreaking discoveries.

Applications of plant-derived extracellular vesicles in medicine

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising therapeutic agents owing to their natural abundance, accessibility, and unique biological properties. This review provides a comprehensive exploration of the therapeutic potential of plant-derived EVs and emphasizes their anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and tumor-inhibitory effects. Here, we discussed the advancements in isolation and purification techniques, such as ultracentrifugation and size-exclusion chromatography, which are critical for maintaining the functional integrity of these nanovesicles. Next, we investigated the diverse administration routes of EVs and carefully weighed their respective advantages and challenges related to bioavailability and patient compliance. Moreover, we elucidated the multifaceted mechanisms of action of plant-derived EVs, including their roles in anti-inflammation, antioxidation, antitumor activity, and modulation of gut microbiota. We also discussed the impact of EVs on specific diseases such as cancer and inflammatory bowel disease, highlighting the importance of addressing current challenges related to production scalability, regulatory compliance, and immunogenicity. Finally, we proposed future research directions for optimizing EV extraction and developing targeted delivery systems. Through these efforts, we envision the seamless integration of plant-derived EVs into mainstream medicine, offering safe and potent therapeutic alternatives across various medical disciplines.

Plant-Based Anticancer Compounds With a Focus on Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is a common form of cancer among women characterized by the growth of malignant cells in the breast tissue. The most common treatments for this condition include chemotherapy, surgical intervention, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, and biological therapy. The primary issues associated with chemotherapy and radiation therapy are their adverse events and significant financial burden among patients in underdeveloped countries. This highlights the need to explore and develop superior therapeutic options that are less detrimental and more economically efficient. Plants provide an abundant supply of innovative compounds and present a promising new avenue for investigating cancer. Plants and their derivations are undergoing a revolution due to their reduced toxicity, expediency, cost-effectiveness, safety, and simplicity in comparison to conventional treatment methods. Natural products are considered promising candidates for the development of anticancer drugs, due perhaps to the diverse pleiotropic effects on target events. The effects of plant-derived products are limited to cancer cells while leaving healthy cells unaffected. Identification of compounds with strong anticancer properties and development of plant-based medications for cancer treatment might be crucial steps in breast cancer therapy. Although bioactive compounds have potent anticancer properties, they also have drawbacks that need to be resolved before their application in clinical trials and improved for the approved drugs. This study aims to give comprehensive information on known anticancer compounds, including their sources and molecular mechanisms of actions, along with opportunities and challenges in plant-based anticancer therapies.

Investigation of In Vitro Anti-cancer and Apoptotic Potential of Onion-Derived Nanovesicles Against Prostate and Cervical Cancer Cell Lines

Plant-derived compounds have recently garnered significant interest in the field of medicine due to their rich repertoire of phytochemicals, which holds promise for exploring novel therapies to treat cancer. This study embarks on the first-time investigation of the anti-cancerous effect of onion-derived nanovesicles (ODNVs). ODNVs were isolated employing differential centrifugation followed by ultracentrifugation and subsequent characterization using dynamic light scattering (DLS), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Furthermore, we delineated the anti-cancerous effect of ODNVs on two cancer cell line models HeLa (cervical cancer) and PC-3 (prostate cancer) using MTT assay, DAPI-based DNA damage using immunofluorescence microscopy, colony formation assay, migration assay, cell cycle analysis, and evaluation of apoptosis using flow cytometry and western blotting. The findings revealed dose- and time-dependent anti-proliferative effects of ODNVs on both HeLa and PC3 cell lines, accompanied by selective cytotoxicity against cancer cells. Additional results highlighted that ODNVs prevented colony growth and induced S-phase cell cycle arrest. Apoptosis induction was evaluated through alterations in nuclear morphology and the number of apoptotic cells, which increased significantly after ODNV treatment in both cancer cell lines. Furthermore, annexin V/PI staining evaluation of apoptotic cells by flow cytometry demonstrated that ODNV treatment significantly increased the number of apoptotic cells in both PC-3 and HeLa cells. Finally, Western blot analysis indicated changes in apoptosis-related proteins including bcl-2, bax, and caspase-3, emphasizing that the anti-cancerous effect of ODNVs is attributed to the induction of apoptosis and suggests the  unexplored anti-cancerous potential of ODNVs.

Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as a Novel Frontier in Cancer Therapeutics

Recent advancements in nanomedicine and biotechnology have unveiled the remarkable potential of plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) as a novel and promising approach for cancer treatment. These naturally occurring nanoscale particles exhibit exceptional biocompatibility, targeted delivery capabilities, and the capacity to load therapeutic agents, positioning them at the forefront of innovative cancer therapy strategies. PDEVs are distinguished by their unique properties that facilitate tumor targeting and penetration, thereby enhancing the efficacy of drug delivery systems. Their intrinsic biological composition allows for the evasion of the immune response, enabling the efficient transport of loaded therapeutic molecules directly to tumor sites. Moreover, PDEVs possess inherent anti-cancer properties, including the ability to induce cell cycle arrest and promote apoptotic pathways within tumor cells. These vesicles have also demonstrated antimetastatic effects, inhibiting the spread and growth of cancer cells. The multifunctional nature of PDEVs allows for the simultaneous delivery of multiple therapeutic agents, further enhancing their therapeutic potential. Engineering and modification techniques, such as encapsulation, and the loading of therapeutic agents via electroporation, sonication, and incubation, have enabled the customization of PDEVs to improve their targeting efficiency and therapeutic load capacity. This includes surface modifications to increase affinity for specific tumor markers and the encapsulation of various types of therapeutic agents, such as small molecule drugs, nucleic acids, and proteins. Their plant-derived origin offers an abundant and renewable source to produce therapeutic vesicles, reducing costs and facilitating scalability for clinical applications. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the latest research on PDEVs as emerging anti-cancer agents in cancer therapy.

Comparison of nanovesicles derived from Panax notoginseng at different size: physical properties, composition, and bioactivity

Aim

Plant-derived nanovesicles have emerged as potential agents for combating tumors. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effects of Panax notoginseng-derived nanovesicles (PnNVs) on the proliferation and migration of squamous cell carcinoma. Additionally, we explored the relationship between plant tuber size and the physical properties, composition and bioactivity of these nanovesicles.

Methods

We isolated PnNVs from Panax notoginseng tubers of varying sizes: small-sized (s_PnNVs), medium-sized (m_PnNVs) and large-sized (l_PnNVs), and evaluated for size, potential, and morphology. Cellular uptake efficiency was assessed using confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. The ability of different PnNVs to inhibit oral squamous cell carcinoma cells was evaluated using plate cloning, CCK8 assay, and scratch healing assay. Off-target metabolomics was used to compare metabolic compounds of different PnNVs.

Results

Our findings revealed that s_PnNVs exhibited lower potential but had the highest cellular uptake efficiency, whereas m_PnNVs were characterized by the smallest size and lowest cellular uptake efficiency. Notably, m_PnNVs demonstrated the most effective inhibition of squamous cell carcinoma growth and migration. Compositional analyses showed that PnNVs were rich in proteins and contained lower levels of RNA, with l_PnNVs having the highest protein content. Furthermore, untargeted metabolomics analysis revealed a significant increase in the expression of specific antitumour-related metabolites in m_PnNVs compared to s_PnNVs and l_PnNVs.

Conclusion

Overall, our results underscore the influence of plant tuber size on the bioactivity of the nanovesicles from which they are derived, emphasizing its importance for experimental design and study reproducibility.

Application of biomimetic nanovaccines in cancer immunotherapy: A useful strategy to help combat immunotherapy resistance

Breakthroughs in actual clinical applications have begun through vaccine-based cancer immunotherapy, which uses the body's immune system, both humoral and cellular, to attack malignant cells and fight diseases. However, conventional vaccine approaches still face multiple challenges eliciting effective antigen-specific immune responses, resulting in immunotherapy resistance. In recent years, biomimetic nanovaccines have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional vaccine approaches by incorporating the natural structure of various biological entities, such as cells, viruses, and bacteria. Biomimetic nanovaccines offer the benefit of targeted antigen-presenting cell (APC) delivery, improved antigen/adjuvant loading, and biocompatibility, thereby improving the sensitivity of immunotherapy. This review presents a comprehensive overview of several kinds of biomimetic nanovaccines in anticancer immune response, including cell membrane-coated nanovaccines, self-assembling protein-based nanovaccines, extracellular vesicle-based nanovaccines, natural ligand-modified nanovaccines, artificial antigen-presenting cells-based nanovaccines and liposome-based nanovaccines. We also discuss the perspectives and challenges associated with the clinical translation of emerging biomimetic nanovaccine platforms for sensitizing cancer cells to immunotherapy.

Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Opuntia ficus-indica Fruit (OFI-EVs) Speed Up the Normal Wound Healing Processes by Modulating Cellular Responses

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been recognized as important mediators of intercellular communication able to transfer active biomolecules across the plant and animal kingdoms. EVs have demonstrated an impressive array of biological activities, displaying preventive and therapeutic potential in mitigating various pathological processes. Indeed, the simplicity of delivering exogenous and endogenous bioactive molecules to mammalian cells with their low cytotoxicity makes EVs suitable agents for new therapeutic strategies for a variety of pathologies. In this study, EVs were isolated from Opuntia ficus-indica fruit (OFI-EVs) and characterized by particle size distribution, concentration, and bioactive molecule composition. OFI-EVs had no obvious toxicity and demonstrated a protective role in the inflammatory process and oxidative stress in vitro model of chronic skin wounds. The results demonstrated that pretreatment with OFI-EVs decreased the activity and gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α) in the LPS-stimulated human leukemia monocytic cell line (THP-1). Furthermore, OFI-EVs promote the migration of human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs), speeding up the normal wound healing processes. This study sheds light, for the first time, on the role of OFI-EVs in modulating important biological processes such as inflammation and oxidation, thereby identifying EVs as potential candidates for healing chronic cutaneous wounds.

Plant-derived extracellular nanovesicles: a promising biomedical approach for effective targeting of triple negative breast cancer cells

Introduction: Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), a highly aggressive subtype accounting for 15-20% of all breast cancer cases, faces limited treatment options often accompanied by severe side effects. In recent years, natural extracellular nanovesicles derived from plants have emerged as promising candidates for cancer therapy, given their safety profile marked by non-immunogenicity and absence of inflammatory responses. Nevertheless, the potential anti-cancer effects of Citrus limon L.-derived extracellular nanovesicles (CLENs) for breast cancer treatment is still unexplored. Methods: In this study, we investigated the anti-cancer effects of CLENs on two TNBC cell lines (4T1 and HCC-1806 cells) under growth conditions in 2D and 3D culture environments. The cellular uptake efficiency of CLENs and their internalization mechanism were evaluated in both cells using confocal microscopy. Thereafter, we assessed the effect of different concentrations of CLENs on cell viability over time using a dual approach of Calcein-AM PI live-dead assay and CellTiter-Glo bioluminescence assay. We also examined the influence of CLENs on the migratory and evasion abilities of TNBC cells through wound healing and 3D Matrigel drop evasion assays. Furthermore, Western blot analysis was employed to investigate the effects of CLENs on the phosphorylation levels of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT), and extracellular signal- regulated kinase (ERK) expression. Results: We found that CLENs were internalized by the cells via endocytosis, leading to decreased cell viability, in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Additionally, the migration and evasion abilities of TNBC cells were significantly inhibited under exposed to 40 and 80 μg/mL CLENs. Furthermore, down-regulated expression levels of phosphorylated phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT), and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), suggesting that the inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, migration, and evasion is driven by the inhibition of the PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK signaling pathways. Discussion: Overall, our results demonstrate the anti-tumor efficiency of CLENs against TNBC cells, highlighting their potential as promising natural anti-cancer agents for clinical applications in cancer treatment.

Advances in the study of plant-derived extracellular vesicles in the skeletal muscle system

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEV) constitute nanoscale entities comprising lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and various components enveloped by the lipid bilayers of plant cells. These vesicles play a crucial role in facilitating substance and information transfer not only between plant cells but also across different species. Owing to its safety, stability, and the abundance of raw materials, this substance has found extensive utilization in recent years within research endeavors aimed at treating various diseases. This article provides an overview of the pathways and biological characteristics of PDEV, along with the prevalent methods employed for its isolation, purification, and storage. Furthermore, we comprehensively outline the therapeutic implications of diverse sources of PDEV in musculoskeletal system disorders. Additionally, we explore the utilization of PDEV as platforms for engineering drug carriers, aiming to delve deeper into the significance and potential contributions of PDEV in the realm of the musculoskeletal system.

Macromolecules with predominant β-pleated sheet proteins in extracellular vesicles released from Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef microgreens induce DNA damage-mediated apoptosis in HCT116 colon cancer cells

Plant-derived bioactive macromolecules (i.e., proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) were prepared as extracellular vesicles (EVs). Plant-derived EVs are gaining pharmaceutical research interest because of their bioactive components and delivery properties. The spherical nanosized EVs derived from Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef microgreens previously showed antiproliferative activity in HCT116 colon cancer cells from macromolecular compositions (predominantly proteins). To understand the mechanism of action, the biological activity studies, i.e., antiproliferation, cellular biochemical changes, DNA conformational changes, DNA damage, apoptotic nuclear morphological changes, apoptosis induction, and apoptotic pathways, were determined by neutral red uptake assay, synchrotron radiation-based Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy, comet assay, 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining, flow cytometry, and caspase activity assay, respectively. EVs inhibited HCT116 cell growth in concentration- and time-dependent manners, with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration of 675.4 ± 33.8 μg/ml at 48 h and a selectivity index of 1.5 ± 0.076. HCT116 treated with EVs mainly changed the cellular biochemical compositions in the nucleic acids and carbohydrates region. The DNA damage caused no changes in DNA conformation. The apoptotic nuclear morphological changes were associated with the increased apoptotic cell population. The apoptotic cell death was induced by both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. EVs have potential as antiproliferative bioparticles.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles: A novel nanotool for disease therapy

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles comprising bilayer phospholipid membranes and are secreted by eukaryotic cells. They are released via cellular exocytosis, contain DNA, RNA, proteins, and other substances, and participate in various cellular communications between tissues and organs. Since the discovery of exosomes in 1983, animal-derived exosomes have become a research focus for small-molecule drug delivery in biology, medicine, and other fields owing to their good biocompatibility and homing effects. Recent studies have found that plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNVs) exhibit certain biological effects, such as anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor abilities, and have minimal toxic side effects. Because they are rich in active lipid molecules with certain pharmacological effects, PELNVs could be novel carriers for drug delivery. In this review, the biological formation and effects, isolation, and extraction of PELNVs, as well as characteristics of transporting drugs as carriers are summarized to provide new ideas and methods for future research on plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles.

Isolation of Extracellular Vesicles from Agri-Food Wastes: A Novel Perspective in the Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products

Agri-food wastes generated by industrial food processing are valorized through the extraction of biomolecules to obtain value-added products useful for various industrial applications. In the present review, we describe the valuable by-products and bioactive molecules that can be obtained from agricultural wastes and propose extracellular vesicles (EVs) as innovative nutraceutical and therapeutic compounds that could be derived from agriculture residues. To support this idea, we described the general features and roles of EVs and focused on plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) that are considered natural carriers of bioactive molecules and are involved in intercellular communication between diverse kingdoms of life. Consistently, PDEVs exert beneficial effects (anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and immune-modulatory) on mammalian cells. Although this research field is currently in its infancy, in the near future, the isolation of EVs and their use as nutraceutical tools could represent a new and innovative way to valorize waste from the agri-food industry in an ecofriendly way.

Research status and challenges of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles

In recent years, there has been an increasing number of related studies on exosomes. Most studies have focused on exosomes derived from mammals, confirming the important role that exosomes play in cell communication. Plants, as a natural ingredient, plant-derived exosomes have been confirmed to have similar structures and functions to mammalian-derived exosomes. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are lipid bilayer membrane nanovesicles containing bioactive constituents such as miRNA, mRNA, protein, and lipids obtained from plant cells, that can participate in intercellular communication and mediate transboundary communication, have high bioavailability and low immunogenicity, are relatively safe, and have been shown to play an important role in maintaining cell homeostasis and preventing, and treating a variety of diseases. In this review, we describe the biogenesis, isolation and purification methods, structural composition, stability, safety, function of PELNs and challenges. The functions of PELNs in anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor and drug delivery are mainly described, and the status of research on exosome nanoparticles of Chinese herbal medicines is outlined. Overall, we summarized the importance of PELNs and the latest research results in this field and provided a theoretical basis for the future research and clinical application of PELNs.

Development of rice bran-derived nanoparticles with excellent anti-cancer activity and their application for peritoneal dissemination

BACKGROUND

Rice bran a by-product of the rice milling process is currently underutilized. Recent studies have shown that plant-derived nanoparticles (pdNPs) can be mass-produced at a low cost and exhibit biological and therapeutic activities. Rice bran contains various anti-cancer compounds, including γ-oryzanol and γ-tocotrienol, and rice bran-derived nanoparticles (rbNPs) can be employed as novel therapeutic agents for cancer treatment.

RESULTS

Koshihikari rice bran was suspended in water, and the suspension was centrifuged and filtered through a 0.45-µm-pore size syringe filter. The filtrate was ultracentrifuged, and the precipitates were suspended to obtain rbNPs. The rbNPs were negatively charged exosome-like nanoparticles with an average diameter of approximately 130 nm. The rbNPs exhibited cytotoxic activities against cancer cells but not against normal cells. The cytotoxic activity of rbNPs to murine colon adenocarcinoma colon26 cells was significantly greater than DOXIL® or other pdNPs. The rbNPs induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, and reduced the expression of proliferative proteins, including β-catenin and cyclin D1. Intraperitoneal injections of rbNPs into mice bearing peritoneal dissemination of colon26 cells significantly suppressed tumor growth with no significant adverse effects.

CONCLUSION

These results indicated that rbNPs are promising nanoparticles, hold significant potential for anti-cancer applications, and are expected to play a vital role in cancer treatment.

Plant-derived nanovesicles offer a promising avenue for anti-aging interventions

Over the past few years, the study of plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) has emerged as a hot topic of discussion and research in the scientific community. This remarkable interest stems from their potential role in facilitating intercellular communication and their unique ability to deliver biologically active components, including proteins, lipids, and miRNAs, to recipient cells. This fascinating ability to act as a molecular courier has opened up an entirely new dimension in our understanding of plant biology. The field of research focusing on the potential applications of PDNVs is still in its nascent stages. However, it has already started gaining traction due to the growing interest in its possible use in various branches of biotechnology and medicine. Their unique properties and versatile applications offer promising future research and development prospects in these fields. Despite the significant progress in our understanding, many unanswered questions and mysteries surround the mechanisms by which PDNVs function and their potential applications. There is a dire need for further extensive research to elucidate these mechanisms and explore the full potential of these fascinating vesicles. As the technology at our disposal advances and our understanding of PDNVs deepens, it is beyond doubt that PDNVs will continue to be a subject of intense research in anti-aging therapeutics. This comprehensive review is designed to delve into the fascinating and multifaceted world of PDNV-based research, particularly focusing on how these nanovesicles can be applied to anti-aging therapeutics.

Plant-Derived Exosome-Like Nanoparticles: Emerging Nanosystems for Enhanced Tissue Engineering

Tissue engineering holds great potential for tissue repair and rejuvenation. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) have recently emerged as a promising avenue in tissue engineering. However, there is an urgent need to understand how plant ELNs can be therapeutically applied in clinical disease management, especially for tissue regeneration. In this review, we comprehensively examine the properties, characteristics, and isolation techniques of plant ELNs. We also discuss their impact on the immune system, compatibility with the human body, and their role in tissue regeneration. To ensure the suitability of plant ELNs for tissue engineering, we explore various engineering and modification strategies. Additionally, we provide insights into the progress of commercialization and industrial perspectives on plant ELNs. This review aims to highlight the potential of plant ELNs in regenerative medicine by exploring the current research landscape and key findings.

Investigation of in-vitro Anti-Cancer and Apoptotic Potential of Garlic-Derived Nanovesicles against Prostate and Cervical Cancer Cell Lines

OBJECTIVE

Investigate the anti-cancerous potential of garlic-derived nanovesicles (GDNVs), exploring their cytotoxic effects on HeLa and PC-3 cell lines, and elucidate the underlying mechanisms, including apoptosis induction and inhibition of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT).

METHODS

GDNVs were isolated using differential centrifugation and ultracentrifugation. Characterization was performed through dynamic light scattering (DLS), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Cytotoxicity assessments on HeLa and PC-3 cell lines using MTT assay. Apoptosis induction was evaluated through nuclear morphology changes and quantification of apoptotic cells using DAPI and PI/annexin V analysis. Western blot of apoptosis-related proteins (bcl-2, bax, caspase-3) was analysed. Anti-metastatic potential was assessed using wound healing assay and EMT transition inhibition.

RESULTS

Garlic-derived nanovesicles (GDNVs), characterized by a size of 134.2 nm, demonstrated a substantial and dose- as well as time-dependent anti-proliferative impact on HeLa and PC-3 cell lines. The induction of apoptosis was unequivocally established through discernible modifications in nuclear morphology. The apoptotic cell count in HeLa and PC-3 cells increased by 42.4 ± 4.2% and 38.2 ± 3.2%, respectively. Comprehensive Western blot demonstrated alterations in the expression of key apoptotic regulators, namely bcl-2, bax, and caspase-3, providing robust evidence for the initiation of apoptosis. Furthermore, GDNVs exerted a significant inhibitory effect (p < 0.001) on the migratory potential of both HeLa and PC-3 cells. Moreover, there was a discernible association between GDNVs and the suppression of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT), emphasizing their role in impeding the metastatic potential of these cancer cell lines.

CONCLUSION

This study establishes, for the first time, the anti-cancerous potential of GDNVs. The observed dose- and time-dependent anti-proliferative effects, selective cytotoxicity, apoptosis induction, and anti-migratory potential highlight GDNVs as a promising candidate for cancer treatment.

Bioactive compounds and biological functions of medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny lipid bilayer-enclosed membrane particles released from a variety of cell types into the surrounding environment. These EVs have massive participated in cell-to-cell communication and interspecies communication. In recent years, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) and "exosome-like" EVs populations found in distinct plants have attracted widespread attention. Especially, research on medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles (MPDEVs) are increasing, which are considered a kind of promising natural compound. This review summarizes current knowledge on MPDEVs in terms of bioactive compounds, including small RNA, protein, lipid, and metabolite, have been found on the surface and/or in the lumen of MPDEVs. Moreover, both in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that MPDEVs exert broad biomedical functions, such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, modulate microbiota, etc. MPDEVs may be a better substitute than animal-derived extracellular vesicles (ADEVs) because of safety and biocompatibility in the future.

Exosome-based delivery strategies for tumor therapy: an update on modification, loading, and clinical application

Malignancy is a major public health problem and among the leading lethal diseases worldwide. Although the current tumor treatment methods have therapeutic effect to a certain extent, they still have some shortcomings such as poor water solubility, short half-life, local and systemic toxicity. Therefore, how to deliver therapeutic agent so as to realize safe and effective anti-tumor therapy become a problem urgently to be solved in this field. As a medium of information exchange and material transport between cells, exosomes are considered to be a promising drug delivery carrier due to their nano-size, good biocompatibility, natural targeting, and easy modification. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the isolation, identification, drug loading, and modification of exosomes as drug carriers for tumor therapy alongside their application in tumor therapy. Basic knowledge of exosomes, such as their biogenesis, sources, and characterization methods, is also introduced herein. In addition, challenges related to the use of exosomes as drug delivery vehicles are discussed, along with future trends. This review provides a scientific basis for the application of exosome delivery systems in oncological therapy.

Gastrointestinal Cancer Therapeutics via Triggering Unfolded Protein Response and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress by 2-Arylbenzofuran

Gastrointestinal cancers are a major global health challenge, with high mortality rates. This study investigated the anti-cancer activities of 30 monomers extracted from Morus alba L. (mulberry) against gastrointestinal cancers. Toxicological assessments revealed that most of the compounds, particularly immunotoxicity, exhibit some level of toxicity, but it is generally not life-threatening under normal conditions. Among these components, Sanggenol L, Sanggenon C, Kuwanon H, 3'-Geranyl-3-prenyl-5,7,2',4'-tetrahydroxyflavone, Morusinol, Mulberrin, Moracin P, Kuwanon E, and Kuwanon A demonstrate significant anti-cancer properties against various gastrointestinal cancers, including colon, pancreatic, and gastric cancers. The anti-cancer mechanism of these chemical components was explored in gastric cancer cells, revealing that they inhibit cell cycle and DNA replication-related gene expression, leading to the effective suppression of tumor cell growth. Additionally, they induced unfolded protein response (UPR) and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, potentially resulting in DNA damage, autophagy, and cell death. Moracin P, an active monomer characterized as a 2-arylbenzofuran, was found to induce ER stress and promote apoptosis in gastric cancer cells, confirming its potential to inhibit tumor cell growth in vitro and in vivo. These findings highlight the therapeutic potential of Morus alba L. monomers in gastrointestinal cancers, especially focusing on Moracin P as a potent inducer of ER stress and apoptosis.

Plant-derived nanovesicles: harnessing nature's power for tissue protection and repair

Tissue damage and aging lead to dysfunction, disfigurement, and trauma, posing significant global challenges. Creating a regenerative microenvironment to resist external stimuli and induce stem cell differentiation is essential. Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) are naturally bioactive lipid bilayer nanovesicles that contain proteins, lipids, ribonucleic acid, and metabolites. They have shown potential in promoting cell growth, migration, and differentiation into various types of tissues. With immunomodulatory, microbiota regulatory, antioxidant, and anti-aging bioactivities, PDNVs are valuable in resisting external stimuli and facilitating tissue repair. The unique structure of PDNVs provides an optimal platform for drug encapsulation, and surface modifications enhance their stability and specificity. Moreover, by employing synergistic administration strategies, PDNVs can maximize their therapeutic potential. This review summarized the progress and prospects of PDNVs as regenerative tools, provided insights into their selection for repair activities based on existing studies, considered the key challenge for clinical application, and anticipated their continued prominent role in the field of biomedicine.

Extracellular Vesicles: Emergent and Multiple Sources in Wound Healing Treatment

Non-healing wound- and tissue-injury are commonly experienced worldwide by the aging population. The persistence of disease commonly leads to tissue infection, resulting in severe clinical complications. In the last decade, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been considered promising and emergent therapeutic tools to improve the healing processes. Therefore, efforts have been directed to develop a cell-free therapeutic platform based on EV administration to orchestrate tissue repair. EVs derived from different cell types, including fibroblast, epithelial, and immune cells are recruited to the injured sites and in turn take part in scar formation. EVs are nano-sized particles containing a heterogeneous cargo consisting of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids protected from degradation by their lipid bilayer. Noteworthy, since EVs have natural biocompatibility and low immunogenicity, they represent the ideal therapeutic candidates for regenerative purposes. Indeed, EVs are released by several cell types, and even if they possess unique biological properties, their functional capability can be further improved by engineering their content and functionalizing their surface, allowing a specific cell cargo delivery. Herein, we provide an overview of preclinical data supporting the contribution of EVs in the repair and regenerative processes, focusing on different naïve EV sources, as well as on their engineering, to offer a scalable and low-cost therapeutic option for tissue repair.

Kuwanon H Inhibits Melanoma Growth through Cytotoxic Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Impaired Autophagy Flux

Although great progress has been made recently in targeted and immune-based therapies, additional treatments are needed for most melanoma patients due to acquired chemoresistance, recurrence, or metastasis. Elevated autophagy is required for the pathogenesis of melanoma to attenuate metabolic stress, protecting cancer cells from chemotherapeutics or radiation. Thus, intervention with autophagy is a promising strategy for melanoma treatment. Here, we examined a novel antimelanoma natural compound named kuwanon H (KuH), which significantly inhibited melanoma cell growth in vitro/vivo. Mechanistically, KuH induced cytotoxic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, which inhibited cell viability and induced apoptosis. Meanwhile, KuH-induced ER stress mediated autophagysome formation through the ATF4-DDIT3-TRIB3-AKT-MTOR axis. Importantly, KuH impaired autophagy flux, which contributed to the anticancer effects of KuH. Finally, our results showed that KuH enhanced the sensitivity of melanoma cells to cisplatin, both in vitro and in vivo, by impairing autophagy degradation of reactive oxygen species and damaged mitochondria. Our findings indicate that KuH is a promising candidate anticancer natural product for melanoma therapy.

Plant and mammalian-derived extracellular vesicles: a new therapeutic approach for the future

Background: In recent years, extracellular vesicles have been recognized as important mediators of intercellular communication through the transfer of active biomolecules (proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) across the plant and animal kingdoms and have considerable roles in several physiological and pathological mechanisms, showing great promise as new therapeutic strategies for a variety of pathologies. Methods: In this study, we carefully reviewed the numerous articles published over the last few decades on the general knowledge of extracellular vesicles, their application in the therapy of various pathologies, and their prospects as an approach for the future. Results: The recent discovery and characterization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) of diverse origins and biogenesis have altered the current paradigm of intercellular communication, opening up new diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives. Research into these EVs released by plant and mammalian cells has revealed their involvement in a number of physiological and pathological mechanisms, such as embryonic development, immune response, tissue regeneration, and cancer. They are also being studied as potential biomarkers for disease diagnosis and vectors for drug delivery. Conclusion: Nanovesicles represent powerful tools for intercellular communication and the transfer of bioactive molecules. Their molecular composition and functions can vary according to their origin (plant and mammalian), so their formation, composition, and biological roles open the way to therapeutic applications in a variety of pathologies, which is arousing growing interest in the scientific community. Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03608631.

Plant-Derived Exosome-Like Nanovesicles: Current Progress and Prospects

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles, ranging in size from 30-150nm, which can be derived from various types of cells. In recent years, mammalian-derived exosomes have been extensively studied and found to play a crucial role in regulating intercellular communication, thereby influencing the development and progression of numerous diseases. Traditional Chinese medicine has employed plant-based remedies for thousands of years, and an increasing body of evidence suggests that plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNs) share similarities with mammalian-derived exosomes in terms of their structure and function. In this review, we provide an overview of recent advances in the study of PELNs and their potential implications for human health. Specifically, we summarize the roles of PELNs in respiratory, digestive, circulatory, and other diseases. Furthermore, we have extensively investigated the potential shortcomings and challenges in current research regarding the mechanism of action, safety, administration routes, isolation and extraction methods, characterization and identification techniques, as well as drug-loading capabilities. Based on these considerations, we propose recommendations for future research directions. Overall, our review highlights the potential of PELNs as a promising area of research, with broad implications for the treatment of human diseases. We anticipate continued interest in this area and hope that our summary of recent findings will stimulate further exploration into the implications of PELNs for human health.