Total saponin from Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt abrogates osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption via the inhibition of RANKL-induced NF-κB, JNK and p38 MAPKs activation

The protective effect of natural medicines in rheumatoid arthritis via inhibit angiogenesis

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic immunological disease leading to the progressive bone and joint destruction. Angiogenesis, accompanied by synovial hyperplasia and inflammation underlies joint destruction. Delaying or even blocking synovial angiogenesis has emerged as an important target of RA treatment. Natural medicines has a long history of treating RA, and numerous reports have suggested that natural medicines have a strong inhibitory activity on synovial angiogenesis, thereby improving the progression of RA. Natural medicines could regulate the following signaling pathways: HIF/VEGF/ANG, PI3K/Akt pathway, MAPKs pathway, NF-κB pathway, PPARγ pathway, JAK2/STAT3 pathway, etc., thereby inhibiting angiogenesis. Tripterygium wilfordii Hook. f. (TwHF), sinomenine, and total glucoside of Paeonia lactiflora Pall. Are currently the most representative of all natural products worthy of development and utilization. In this paper, the main factors affecting angiogenesis were discussed and different types of natural medicines that inhibit angiogenesis were systematically summarized. Their specific anti-angiogenesis mechanisms are also reviewed which aiming to provide new perspective and options for the management of RA by targeting angiogenesis.

Alcohol extracts from Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt treat rheumatoid arthritis via inhibition of synovial hyperplasia and angiogenesis

Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt, a Traditional Chinese Medicine, has been used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) for numerous years. However, the specific mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the main chemical constituents and potential mechanisms of Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt. The ethanol extract obtained from Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt (EAF) was analyzed using mass spectrometry to determine the main components and the therapeutic effects of EAF on RA were verified using a collagen‑induced arthritis (CIA) rat model. Results of the present study demonstrated that synovial hyperplasia and pannus of the model rats were significantly improved following EAF treatment. Moreover, the protein expression levels of VEGF and CD31‑labeled neovascularization were significantly reduced in the synovium of CIA rats following treatment with EAF, compared with those of the untreated model group. Subsequently, in vitro experiments were carried out to verify the impact of EAF on synovial proliferation and angiogenesis. Results of the western blot analysis revealed that EAF inhibited the PI3K signaling pathway in endothelial cells, which is associated with anti‑angiogenesis. In conclusion, results of the present study demonstrated the therapeutic effects of Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt on RA and preliminarily revealed the mechanisms of this drug in the treatment of RA.

Porphyromonas gingivalis Induces Bisphosphonate-Related Osteonecrosis of the Femur in Mice

One of the most prominent characteristics of bisphosphonate-related osteonecrosis of the jaw(BRONJ) is its site-specificity. Osteonecrosis tends to occur specifically in maxillofacial bones, in spite of a systemic administration of the medicine. Previous studies suggested rich blood supply and fast bone turnover might be reasons for BRONJ. Yet, a sound scientific basis explaining its occurrence is still lacking. The present study aimed to explore the role of Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis), an important oral pathogen, on the site-specificity of bisphosphonate-induced osteonecrosis and to elucidate its underlying mechanism. Mice were intraperitoneally injected with zoledronic acid (ZA) or saline for 3 weeks. In the third week, the right mandibular first molars were extracted and circular bone defects with a diameter of 1 mm were created in right femurs. After the operation, drug administration was continued, and P. gingivalis suspension was applied to the oral cavities and femur defects. The mice were killed after four or eight weeks postoperatively. The right mandibles and femurs were harvested for micro-CT and histological analyses. A poor healing of bone defects of both jaws and femurs was noted in mice injected with both ZA and P. gingivalis. Micro-CT analysis showed a decreased bone volume, and histological staining showed an increased number of empty osteocyte lacunae, a decreased collagen regeneration, an increased inflammatory infiltration and a decreased number of osteoclasts. In addition, the left femurs were collected for isolation of osteoclast precursors (OCPs). The osteoclastogenesis potential of OCPs was analyzed in vitro. OCPs extracted from mice of ZA-treated groups were shown to have a lower osteoclast differentiation potential and the expression level of related genes and proteins was declined. In conclusion, we established a mouse model of bisphosphonate-related osteonecrosis of both the jaw and femur. P. gingivalis could inhibit the healing of femur defects under the administration of ZA. These findings suggest that P. gingivalis in the oral cavity might be one of the steering compounds for BRONJ to occur.

Zoledronic acid inhibits osteoclastogenesis and bone resorptive function by suppressing RANKL‑mediated NF‑κB and JNK and their downstream signalling pathways

Targeting excessive osteoclast differentiation and activity is considered a valid therapeutic approach for osteoporosis. Zoledronic acid (ZOL) plays a pivotal role in regulating bone mineral density. However, the exact molecular mechanisms responsible for the inhibitory effects of ZOL on receptor activator of nuclear factor (NF)-κB ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclast formation are not entirely clear. The present study aimed to investigate the role of ZOL in osteoclast differentiation and function, and to determine whether NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase, and their downstream signalling pathways, are involved in this process. RAW264.7 cells were cultured with RANKL for differentiation into osteoclasts, in either the presence or absence of ZOL. Osteoclast formation was observed by tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase staining and bone resorption pit assays using dentine slices. The expression of osteoclast-specific molecules was analysed using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting assays to deduce the molecular mechanisms underlying the role of ZOL in osteoclastogenesis. The results showed that ZOL significantly attenuated osteoclastogenesis and bone resorptive capacity in vitro. ZOL also suppressed the activation of NF-κB and the phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase. Furthermore, it inhibited the expression of the downstream factors c-Jun, c-Fos and nuclear factor of activated T cells c1, thereby decreasing the expression of dendritic cell-specific transmembrane protein and other osteoclast-specific markers. In conclusion, ZOL may have therapeutic potential for osteoporosis.

Appropriate Reference Genes for RT-qPCR Normalization in Various Organs of Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt at Different Growing Stages

Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt is a traditional medicinal herb in southwestern China and has multiple pharmacological effects on bruise injuries and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). A new drug with a good curative effect on RA has recently been developed from the extract of A. flaccida rhizomes, of which the main medicinal ingredients are triterpenoid saponins. Due to excessive exploitation, the wild population has been scarce and endangered in a few of its natural habitats and research on the cultivation of the plant commenced. Studies on the gene expressions related to the biosynthesis of triterpenoid saponins are not only helpful for understanding the effects of environmental factors on the medicinal ingredient accumulations but also necessary for monitoring the herb quality of the cultivated plants. Reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) as a sensitive and powerful technique has been widely used to detect gene expression across tissues in plants at different stages; however, its accuracy and reliability depend largely on the reference gene selection. In this study, the expressions of 10 candidate reference genes were evaluated in various organs of the wild and cultivated plants at different stages, using the algorithms of geNorm, NormFinder and BestKeeper, respectively. The purpose of this study was to identify the suitable reference genes for RT-qPCR detection in A. flaccida. The results showed that two reference genes were sufficient for RT-qPCR data normalization in A. flaccida. PUBQ and ETIF1a can be used as suitable reference genes in most organs at various stages because of their expression stabilitywhereas the PUBQ and EF1Α genes were desirable in the rhizomes of the plant at the vegetative stage.

Inhibition of zoledronic acid derivatives with extended methylene linkers on osteoclastogenesis involve downregulation of JNK and Akt pathways

Bisphosphonates (BPs), especially zoledronic acid (ZOL), are clinically used to treat osteolytic bone lesions. However, serious side-effects may be also induced during the therapeutic process. To improve the BPs drugs, here, we investigated the effects of a series of ZOL derivatives with increasing number of methylene linker between the imidazole ring and the P-C-P backbone named IPrDP, IBDP, IPeDP, and IHDP on cell viability and receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclast differentiation, function and apoptosis induction in mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs). Our results suggested that IPeDP and IHDP, which contains 4 and 5 methylene linkers, respectively, exerted lower toxicity on BMMs compared with ZOL, IPrDP, and IBDP, which contains 1, 2, and 3 methylene linkers respectively. At concentrations below cytotoxicity threshold, IPeDP and IHDP possessed strong abilities of antiosteoclast formation, antibone absorption, and inducing osteoclast apoptosis, which were similar to ZOL and more powerful than IPrDP and IBDP. The mechanism behind these effects of IPeDP and IHDP might involve the interference of small GTPases prenylation through suppression of mevalonate pathway. The downregulation of JNK and Akt phosphorylation and subsequent inhibition of the expression of c-Fos and NFATc1 might also be involved. Our results supported the potential usage of IPeDP and IHDP to treat bone-related disorders involving increased osteoclastogenesis. Our attempt to extend the methylene linker between the imidazole ring and the P-C-P backbone of ZOL also reveals some regularities between the structure and properties of the BPs drugs.

[Zoledronate regulates osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption in high glucose through p38 MAPK pathway]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of zoledronate (ZOL) on osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption under high glucose, and the regulation mechanism of p38 mitogen activated kinase (p38 MAPK) signaling pathway in this process.

METHODS

RAW264.7 cells were divided into four groups: low group, high group, low+ZOL group and high+ZOL group after induced into osteoclasts. Cell proliferation activity was determined by MTT assay. The migration of RAW264.7 cells were examined Optical microscopy. Immunofluorescence microscopy was used to observe the cytoskeleton and sealing zones of osteoclasts. After adding group 5: high + ZOL + SB203580 group, trap staining was used to identify the number of positive osteoclasts in each group. The number and area of resorption lacunae were observed by SEM. The mRNA and protein expression of osteoclast related factors were detected by real-time PCR and Western blotting.

RESULTS

The cells in the 5 groups showed similar proliferative activity. High glucose promoted the migration of RAW264.7 cells (P < 0.05), inhibited the clarity of cytoskeleton and the formation of sealing zones in the osteoclasts. Exposure to high glucose significantly lowered the expressions of p38 MAPK, p-p38 MAPK, NFATc1, CTSK and TRAP, and inhibited osteoclast differentiation and bone absorption (P < 0.05). Treatment with ZOL obviously suppressed the migration ability of RAW264.7 cells, further reduced the clarity of the cytoskeleton, inhibited the formation of sealing zones of the osteoclasts, lowered the expressions of p38 MAPK, p-p38 MAPK, NFATc1, CTSK, and TRAP (P < 0.05), and inhibited osteoclast differentiation and bone absorption. Treatment with SB203580 obviously inhibited osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption and the expressions of P38 MAPK, p-p38 MAPK, NFATc1, CTSK and TRAP (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

High glucose inhibits osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption. ZOL inhibits osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption in high-glucose conditions by regulating p38 MAPK pathway, which can be a new pathway for ZOL to regulate diabetic osteoporosis.

Pharmacological evaluation of imidazole-derived bisphosphonates on receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand-induced osteoclast differentiation and function

Bisphosphonates (BPs) have been commonly used in the treatment of osteolytic bone lesions, such as osteoporosis and osteogenesis imperfecta. However, serious side-effects can occur during the therapy. To search for novel potent BPs with lower side-effects, a series of imidazole-containing BPs (zoledronic acid [ZOL]; ZOL derivatives by substitution of the hydrogen at the 2-position on the imidazole ring with a methyl [MIDP], ethyl [EIDP], n-propyl [PIDP], or n-butyl group [BIDP]) were developed and the effects on receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclast differentiation were investigated using the murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells at the protein, gene, and morphological and functional levels. Influences of these BPs on the cell growth and proliferation of RAW 264.7 were also studied in order to determine cytotoxicity. The results showed that PIDP significantly inhibited the RANKL-induced osteoclast formation in a dose-dependent fashion without inducing cytotoxicity under the concentration of 12.5 μM. It exerted remarkable suppressive effects on the development of actin rings, the bone resorption, and the expressions of osteoclastogenesis-related gene and protein markers. The down-regulation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), protein kinase B (Akt), and inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-B (IκB) phosphorylation in the early signaling event and subsequent inhibition of the expression of c-Fos and nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFATc1) might be involved in these effects. All these results indicated that PIDP might be a promising drug to treat bone-related disorders.

Polyphyllin VII attenuated RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation via inhibiting of TRAF6/c-Src/PI3K pathway and ROS production

Background

Osteoporosis is a worldwide severe bone disease. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of polyphyllin VII on the genesis of osteoclasts from bone marrow macrophages (BMMs) and its potentiality as a therapeutic drug for osteoporosis.

Methods

BMMs were induced to differentiate into osteoclasts by RANKL and M-CSF. The cells were then treated with various concentrations of polyphyllin VII. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) measurement assay, resorption pit formation assay, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining and TRAP activity assessment, cell viability assay, active GTPase pull-down assay, immunofluorescent staining, immunoblotting, and RT-PCR were performed.

Results

RANKL + M-CSF significantly increased TRAP activity, number of osteoclasts, number and area of lacunae, intracellular content of ROS, protein levels of Nox1, TRAF6, c-Src and p-PI3K, as well as the content of activated GTP-Rac1, which were significantly blocked by polyphyllin VII in a concentration-dependent manner.

Conclusion

These findings suggested that polyphyllin VII inhibited differentiation of BMMs into osteoclasts through suppressing ROS synthesis, which was modulated by TRAF6–cSrc–PI3k signal transduction pathway including GTP-Rac1 and Nox1. Polyphyllin VII could be a therapeutic drug for osteoporosis.

A two-step approach for systematic identification and quality evaluation of wild and introduced Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt (Di Wu) based on DNA barcode and UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS

Herbal materials have both medicinal and commercial values. As such, accurate species and content identification and verification are necessary to ensure the safe and effective use for medical and commodity purposes. Herein, we introduce a two-step approach for systematic identification and quality evaluation of wild and introduced Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt (aka Di Wu) using DNA barcode and ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS). To begin, a precise and rapid identification method based on internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) sequence was developed to ensure the authenticity of 'Di Wu' species. Next, the major active components were fully characterized utilizing a targeted profile of oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins, which was established via UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS. As a result, 34 oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins were identified or characterized in 'Di Wu.' The qualitative and relative quantitative analysis showed obvious differences between wild and introduced 'Di Wu.' Furthermore, dynamic changes in the contents of triterpenoid saponins throughout various harvesting periods were clearly explained and mid-April was identified as the appropriate harvest time. Moreover, results indicate that the contents of five main saponins (anhuienoside E, glycosideSt-I4a, hemsgiganoside B, flaccidoside II, and hederasaponin B) are more appropriate as a quality evaluation indicator than the current quality standard. The two-step approach provides a suitable strategy to evaluate the genuine quality of wild and introduced 'Di Wu,' and can be applied to the targeted analysis of other triterpenoid saponin analogues for quality evaluation. Graphical Abstract .

Zoledronic acid inhibits osteoclast differentiation and function through the regulation of NF-κB and JNK signalling pathways

It is well known that extensive osteoclast formation plays a key role in osteoporosis in post‑menopausal women and the elderly. The suppression of extensive osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption may be an effective preventive strategy for osteoporosis. Zoledronic acid (ZOL) has been indicated to play an essential role in regulating bone mineral density and has already been used in large clinical trials. However, the effects of ZOL on osteoclastogenesis remain to be fully elucidated. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine the effects of ZOL on osteoclastogenesis, and to explore the corresponding signalling pathways. By using a cell viability assay, as well as in vitro osteoclastogenesis, immunofluorescence and resorption pit assays, we demonstrated that ZOL (0.1‑5 µM) suppressed receptor activator of nuclear factor‑κB ligand (RANKL)‑induced osteoclast differentiation and bone resorptive activity. Furthermore, western blot analysis and reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR indicated that ZOL inhibited the RANKL‑induced activation of NF‑κB and the phosphorylation of JNK in RAW264.7 cells, and subsequently decreased the expression of osteoclastogenesis‑associated genes, including calcitonin receptor, tartrate‑resistant acid phosphatase and dendritic cell‑specific transmembrane protein. ZOL inhibited osteoclast formation and resorption in vitro by specifically suppressing NF‑κB and JNK signalling. On the whole, the findings of this study indicate that ZOL may serve as a potential agent for the treatment of osteoclast‑associated diseases, including osteoporosis.

Bee venom attenuates Porphyromonas gingivalis and RANKL-induced bone resorption with osteoclastogenic differentiation

Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) is one of the major periodontal pathogens leading to inflammation and alveolar bone resorption. Bone resorption is induced by osteoclasts, which are multinucleated giant cells. Osteoclastic bone resorption is mediated by enhanced receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand (RANKL) signaling. Therefore, the down-regulation of RANKL downstream signals is regarded as an effective therapeutic target in the treatment of bone loss-associated disorders. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether purified bee venom (BV) could attenuate P. gingivalis-induced inflammatory periodontitis and RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation. Inflammatory periodontitis induced by P. gingivalis increased alveolar bone resorption and increased expression of TNF-α and IL-1β, while BV treatment resulted in decreased bone loss and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Similarly, RANKL-induced multinucleated osteoclast differentiation and osteoclast-specific gene expression, such as nuclear factor of activated T cells 1 (NFATc1), cathepsin K, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP), and integrin αvβ3 were significantly suppressed by treatment with BV. We show that BV reduces P. gingivalis-induced inflammatory bone loss-related periodontitis in vivo and RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation, activation, and function in vitro. These results suggest that BV exerts positive effects on inflammatory periodontitis associated osteoclastogenesis.

The aqueous and methanol extracts of Bambusa vulgaris (Poaceae) improve calcium and phosphorus levels, and bone microstructure in ovariectomized model of osteoporosis

Background Osteoporosis represents the most common metabolic bone disease. Bambusa vulgaris (Poaceae) is a plant with potential antiosteoporotic effects, due to its phytoestrogenic, antioxidative, and anti-inflammatory properties. This study was undertaken to evaluate the effects of aqueous and methanol extracts of B. vulgaris on osteoporosis in rats. Methods Adult female Wistar rats were randomly divided into normal (n = 6) and ovariectomized (n = 42) groups. Twelve weeks after ovariectomy, animals were treated for 4 weeks as follows: distilled water (10 mL/kg, per os (p.o.)), 17β-estradiol (10 μg/kg, intraperitoneal (i.p.)), soya oil (1 mL/kg, i.p.), aqueous or methanol extract of B. vulgaris (55 or 110 mg/kg, p.o.). All rats were weighed daily and sacrificed on day 29. Plasma was collected, and the uterus and femur were dissected out, weighed, and used for biochemical and histological measurements. Results In the untreated ovariectomized females, a non-significant (p > 0.05) increase in body weight and a significant decrease (p < 0.001) in the uterine and bone weights were recorded. Ovariectomy also significantly (p < 0.001) lowered the bone calcium and phosphorus concentrations, and deteriorated the microarchitecture of the femur. Interestingly, B. vulgaris extracts significantly (p < 0.001) improved the bone calcium concentration and femur microarchitecture (increase in trabecular bone density, reorganization of the trabecular network, and increase in bone marrow) with estrogenic-like effects compared to 17β-estradiol. Conclusion These results suggest that B. vulgaris is a potential therapeutic drug for the treatment of osteoporosis. The present findings further justify the ethno-medicinal claims of B. vulgaris.

Transcriptomic analysis in Anemone flaccida rhizomes reveals ancillary pathway for triterpene saponins biosynthesis and differential responsiveness to phytohormones

Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt is a perennial medicinal herb that contains pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins as the major bioactive constituents. In China, the rhizomes are used as treatments for a variety of ailments including arthritis. However, yields of the saponins are low, and little is known about the plant's genetic background or phytohormonal responsiveness. Using one-quarter of the 454 pyrosequencing information from the Roche GS FLX Titanium platform, we performed a transcriptomic analysis to identify 157 genes putatively encoding 26 enzymes involved in the synthesis of the bioactive compounds. It was revealed that there are two biosynthetic pathways of triterpene saponins in A. flaccida. One pathway depends on β-amyrin synthase and is similar to that found in other plants. The second, subsidiary ("backburner") pathway is catalyzed by camelliol C synthase and yields β-amyrin as minor byproduct. Both pathways used cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases (CYPs) and family 1 uridine diphosphate glycosyltransferases (UGTs) to modify the triterpenoid backbone. The expression of CYPs and UGTs were quite different in roots treated with the phytohormones methyl jasmonate, salicylic acid and indole-3-acetic acid. This study provides the first large-scale transcriptional dataset for the biosynthetic pathways of triterpene saponins and their phytohormonal responsiveness in the genus Anemone.

The effects of TRAF6 on proliferation, apoptosis and invasion in osteosarcoma are regulated by miR-124

The present study aimed to verify tumor necrosis factor receptor‑associated factor 6 (TRAF6) as the target gene of microRNA-124 (miR-124). In addition, the expression of miR‑124 was investigated in osteosarcoma tissues and cells, and its effects on the biological characteristics of osteosarcoma cells were determined, in order to provide an experimental and theoretical basis for the application of TRAF6 in the treatment of osteosarcoma. A fluorescence reporter enzyme system was used to verify TRAF6 as a target gene of miR‑124, and western blotting was used to detect the effects of miR‑124 on the protein expression levels of TRAF6 in cells. The expression levels of miR‑124 were detected in osteosarcoma tissues and an osteosarcoma cell line (MG‑63) by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). In addition, a total of 48 h post‑transfection of MG‑63 cells with a miR‑124 mimic, qPCR was used to detect the expression levels of miR‑124, and the effects of miR‑124 on the viability of MG‑63 human osteosarcoma cells was determined using the MTT method. The effects of miR‑124 on the cell cycle progression and apoptosis of MG‑63 cells were analyzed by flow cytometry, whereas the effects of miR‑124 on the migration of MG‑63 cells was detected using the Transwell invasion chamber analysis method. A TRAF6 recombinant expression plasmid (pcDNA3.1‑TRAF6) was also constructed, and MG‑63 cells were transfected with the recombinant plasmid and a miR‑124 mimic, in order to further validate the biological role of miR‑124 via the regulation of TRAF6. The results of the present study indicated that, compared with in the normal control group, the expression levels of miR‑124 were significantly increased in MG‑63 cells transfected with a miR‑124 mimic (P<0.01). In addition, the luciferase reporter gene system demonstrated that, compared with in the control group, relative luciferase activity was significantly reduced in the miR‑124 mimic group (P<0.01). The results of MTT analysis indicated that cell viability was also significantly reduced in response to the overexpression of miR‑124 in MG‑63 cells (P<0.01). Flow cytometric analysis demonstrated that the proportion of cells in S phase and G2/M phase was significantly decreased (P<0.01) in cells overexpressing miR‑124, and the number of apoptotic cells was significantly increased (P<0.01). Furthermore, the results of the Transwell invasion assay suggested that the number of invasive cells was significantly decreased following enhanced expression of miR‑124 (P<0.01). In MG‑63 cells overexpressing miR‑124 and TRAF6, the results of MTT, flow cytometric and Transwell assay analyses demonstrated that the overexpression of TRAF6 had the opposite biological effects compared to miR‑124 overexpression. In conclusion, the present study indicated that the expression levels of miR‑124 were downregulated in human osteosarcoma tissues and cells, and that miR‑124 is associated with negative regulation of TRAF6 expression; therefore, the role of TRAF6 in primary osteosarcoma may be regulated by miR‑124. Therapeutic strategies that enhance miR‑124 expression or inhibit TRAF6 expression may be beneficial for the treatment of patients with osteosarcoma.

Anemone medicinal plants: ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and biology

The Ranunculaceae genus Anemone (order Ranunculales), comprising more than 150 species, mostly herbs, has long been used in folk medicine and worldwide ethnomedicine. Various medicinal compounds have been found in Anemone plants, especially triterpenoid saponins, some of which have shown anti-cancer activities. Some Anemone compounds and extracts display immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. More than 50 species have ethnopharmacological uses, which provide clues for modern drug discovery. Anemone compounds exert anticancer and other bioactivities via multiple pathways. However, a comprehensive review of the Anemone medicinal resources is lacking. We here summarize the ethnomedical knowledge and recent progress on the chemical and pharmacological diversity of Anemone medicinal plants, as well as the emerging molecular mechanisms and functions of these medicinal compounds. The phylogenetic relationships of Anemone species were reconstructed based on nuclear ITS and chloroplast markers. The molecular phylogeny is largely congruent with the morphology-based classification. Commonly used medicinal herbs are distributed in each subgenus and section, and chemical and biological studies of more unexplored taxa are warranted. Gene expression profiling and relevant "omics" platforms could reveal differential effects of phytometabolites. Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics should be highlighted in deciphering novel therapeutic mechanisms and utilities of Anemone phytometabolites.

Total Saponin from Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt Prevents Bone Destruction in Experimental Rheumatoid Arthritis via Inhibiting Osteoclastogenesis

Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt is used in the clinical compound prescription for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in China and has the traditional use of draining dampness, diminishing swelling, and relieving pain. Total saponins (TS) are the characteristic components and also the main active ingredients of A. flaccida. Previous reports indicated that TS possess anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory properties; however, the effects of TS on bone destruction of RA have not been evaluated. In this study, our data first showed the therapeutic effects of TS on severity of arthritis and arthritis progression in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) rats. Then, by microfocal computed tomography (CT) quantification, TS significantly increased bone mineral density, bone volume fraction, and trabecular thickness and decreased trabecular separation of inflamed joints both at peri-articular and extra-articular locations. TS also diminished the level of the bone resorption marker CTX-I and simultaneously increased the bone formation marker osteocalcin in sera of CIA rats. Interestingly, TS prevented bone destruction by reducing the number of osteoclasts in inflamed joints, reducing the expression of receptor activator of nuclear factor-κF (RANK) ligand (RANKL) and RANK, increasing the expression of osteoprotegerin (OPG), at both mRNA and protein levels, and decreasing the ratio of RANKL to OPG in inflamed joints and sera of CIA rats. This was further confirmed in the co-culture system of human fibroblast-like synovial and peripheral blood mononuclear cells. In addition, TS inhibited the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines implicated in bone resorption, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), IL-6, IL-17, and IL-23 in sera and joints. These findings offer convincing evidence that TS attenuate RA partially by preventing both focal bone destruction and systemic bone loss. This anti-erosive effect results in part from inhibiting osteoclastogenesis by regulating the RANKL/RANK/OPG signaling pathway. The suppression of systemic and local pro-osteoclastogenic cytokines by TS was also highly effective.