Stromal TRIM28-associated signaling pathway modulation within the colorectal cancer microenvironment

Exploring the Mechanisms, Biomarkers, and Therapeutic Targets of TRIM Family in Gastrointestinal Cancer

Gastrointestinal region (GI) cancers are closely linked to the ubiquitination system, with the E3 ubiquitin ligase playing a crucial role by targeting various substrates. As E3 ubiquitin ligases, proteins of tripartite motif (TRIM) family play a role in cancer signaling, development, apoptosis, and formation. These proteins regulate diverse biological activities and signaling pathways. This study comprehensively outlines the functions of TRIM proteins in gastrointestinal physiology, contributing to our knowledge of the molecular pathways involved in gastrointestinal tumors. Gastrointestinal region (GI) cancers are closely linked to the ubiquitination system, with the E3 ubiquitin ligase playing a crucial role by targeting various substrates.

Multifaceted role of TRIM28 in health and disease

The TRIM (tripartite motif) family, with TRIM28 as a key member, plays a vital role in regulating health and disease. TRIM28 contains various functional domains essential for transcriptional regulation, primarily through its interaction with KRAB-ZNF proteins, which influence chromatin remodeling and gene expression. Despite extensive research, the precise mechanisms by which TRIM28 impacts health and disease remain elusive. This review delves into TRIM28's multifaceted roles in maintaining health, contributing to a variety of diseases, and influencing cancer progression. In cancers, TRIM28 exhibits a dual nature, functioning as both a tumor promoter and suppressor depending on the cellular context and cancer type. The review also explores its critical involvement in processes such as DNA repair, cell cycle regulation, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and the maintenance of stem cell properties. By uncovering TRIM28's complex roles across different cancers and other diseases, this review underscores its potential as a therapeutic target. The significance of TRIM28 as a versatile regulator opens the door to innovative therapeutic strategies, particularly in cancer treatment and the management of other diseases. Ongoing research into TRIM28 may yield key insights into disease progression and novel treatment options.

TRIM28 Regulates Proliferation of Gastric Cancer Cells Partly Through SRF/IDO1 Axis

Background: Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common malignancies worldwide, with high incidence and mortality rate. Tripartite motif-containing 28 (TRIM28) is an important molecule that affects the occurrence and development of tumors, but its function in GC has not been elucidated clearly. The purpose of this study is to explore the molecular mechanism by which TRIM28 affect the GC. Methods: TRIM28 expression was tested in RNA-seq data from TCGA database, tumor tissue samples from patients and GC cell lines. Genes were silenced or overexpressed by siRNA, lentivirus-mediated shRNA, or plasmids. Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) and colony formation assays were performed to explore the proliferation of GC cells after TRIM28 knockdown. RNA-seq and TCGA database were used to identify target genes. Luciferase report assay was employed to detect the possible mechanism between TRIM28 and Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO1). Tryptophan concentration in cell supernatant was measured using a fluorometric assay kit. MGC-803 and 746T cells were injected into mice to establish xenograft animal models. Results: The expression of TRIM28 was positively correlated with tumor size and poorer prognosis. Upregulation of TRIM28 was observed in GC tissues and cells. In vitro, we proved that knockdown of TRIM28 significantly inhibited the proliferation of GC cells. Then TRIM28 was found to be positively correlated with the expression of IDO1 in GC cells. In accordance with this, tryptophan levels in cell supernatants were increased in TRIM28 knockdown GC cells and overexpression of IDO1 could reverse this phenotype. Serum response factor (SRF), a reported regulator of IDO1, was also regulated by TRIM28 in GC cells. And decreased expression of IDO1 induced by TRIM28 knockdown could be partly reversed through overexpression of serum response factor (SRF) in GC cells. Functional research demonstrated that the expression of IDO1 was increased in GC and IDO1 knockdown could also inhibited the proliferation of GC cells. Furthermore, overexpression of IDO1 could partly reverse proliferation inhibited by TRIM28 knockdown in GC cells. In vivo, knockdown of TRIM28 significantly inhibited the tumor growth and overexpression of IDO1 and SRF both could reverse proliferation inhibited by TRIM28 knockdown. Conclusions: TRIM28 is crucial in the development of GC, and may regulate IDO1 through SRF. TRIM28 promote GC cell proliferation through SRF/IDO1 axis.

Intricate confrontation: Research progress and application potential of TRIM family proteins in tumor immune escape

BACKGROUND

Tripartite motif (TRIM) family proteins have more than 80 members and are widely found in various eukaryotic cells. Most TRIM family proteins participate in the ubiquitin-proteasome degradation system as E3-ubiquitin ligases; therefore, they play pivotal regulatory roles in the occurrence and development of tumors, including tumor immune escape. Due to the diversity of functional domains of TRIM family proteins, they can extensively participate in multiple signaling pathways of tumor immune escape through different substrates. In current research and clinical contexts, immune escape has become an urgent problem. The extensive participation of TRIM family proteins in curing tumors or preventing postoperative recurrence and metastasis makes them promising targets.

AIM OF REVIEW

The aim of the review is to make up for the gap in the current research on TRIM family proteins and tumor immune escape and propose future development directions according to the current progress and problems.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

This up-to-date review summarizes the characteristics and biological functions of TRIM family proteins, discusses the mechanisms of TRIM family proteins involved in tumor immune escape, and highlights the specific mechanism from the level of structure-function-molecule-pathway-phenotype, including mechanisms at the level of protein domains and functions, at the level of molecules and signaling pathways, and at the level of cells and microenvironments. We also discuss the application potential of TRIM family proteins in tumor immunotherapy, such as possible treatment strategies for combination targeting TRIM family protein drugs and checkpoint inhibitors for improving cancer treatment.

Integrated Bioinformatics and Experimental Analysis Identified TRIM28 a Potential Prognostic Biomarker and Correlated with Immune Infiltrates in Liver Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

Since the 1970s, liver hepatocellular carcinoma (LIHC) has experienced a constant rise in incidence and mortality rates, making the identification of LIHC biomarkers very important. Tripartite Motif-Containing 28 (TRIM28) is a protein-coding gene which encodes the tripartite motif-containing proteins (TRIMs) family and is associated with specific chromatin regions. TRIM28 expression and its prognostic value and impact on the immune system in LIHC patients are being investigated for the first time.

Methods

The TRIM28 expression data from TCGA database was used to analyze TRIM28 expression, clinicopathological information, gene enrichment, and immune infiltration and conduct additional bioinformatics analysis. R language was used for statistical analysis. TIMER, CIBERSORT, and ssGSEA were used to assess immune responses of TRIM28 in LIHC. Next, the results were validated using GEPIA, ROC analysis, and immunohistochemical staining pictures from the THPA. GSE14520, GSE63898, and GSE87630 datasets were analyzed using ROC analysis to further evaluate TRIM28's diagnostic value. To ultimately determine TRIM28 expression, we performed qRT-PCR (quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction).

Results

High TRIM28 expression level was associated with T classification, pathologic stage, histologic grade, and serum AFP levels. In patients with LIHC, TRIM28 was an independent risk factor for a poor prognosis. The pathways ligand-receptor interaction, which is critical in LIHC patients, were closely associated with TRIM28 expression, and the function of DC could be suppressed by overexpression of TRIM28. As a final step, our results were validated by GEO data and qRT-PCR.

Conclusions

TRIM28 will shed new light on LIHC mechanisms. As an effective diagnostic and intervention tool, this gene will be able to diagnose and treat LIHC at an early stage.

The TRIM proteins in cancer: from expression to emerging regulatory mechanisms

New clinical evidence suggests that dysregulation of the ubiquitin-mediated destruction of tumor suppressors or oncogene products is probably engaged in the etiology of leukemia and carcinoma. The superfamily of tripartite motif (TRIM)-containing protein family is among the biggest recognized single protein RING finger E3 ubiquitin ligases that are considered vital carcinogenesis regulators, which is not shocking since TRIM proteins are engaged in various biological processes, including cell growth, development, and differentiation; hence, TRIM proteins' alterations may influence apoptosis, cell proliferation, and transcriptional regulation. In this review article, the various mechanisms through which TRIM proteins exert their role in the most prevalent malignancies including lung, prostate, colorectal, liver, breast, brain cancer, and leukemia are summarized.

Role of salt‑inducible kinase 2 in the malignant behavior and glycolysis of colorectal cancer cells

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common type of cancer worldwide. Currently, surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy are the conventional approaches used to treat CRC. However, these therapy strategies cause several side effects. The present study aimed to develop an alternative and more effective treatment approach for patients with CRC. It has been reported that salt-inducible kinase 2 (SIK2) acts as an oncogene. Therefore, in the present study, the expression levels of SIK2 were determined in CRC cells using western blot analysis and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. In addition, SIK2 was knocked down in CRC cells to evaluate its role in cell proliferation, migration, invasion and glycolysis using Cell Counting Kit-8, wound healing, Transwell assays and glycolysis cell-based assay kit, respectively. Additionally, the target genes of SIK2 were identified using bioinformatics analysis, while SIK2 overexpression experiments were carried out to determine whether SIK2 could regulate CRC cell malignant behavior and glycolysis. The results revealed that SIK2 was upregulated in CRC cells. Furthermore, SIK2 knockdown attenuated CRC cell proliferation, migration, invasion and glycolysis. Bioinformatics analysis predicted that SIK2 could interact with tripartite motif containing 28 (TRIM28), while TRIM28 overexpression could reverse the effects of SIK2 silencing on cell proliferation, migration, invasion and glycolysis. This finding indicated that the aforementioned effects of SIK2 were mediated by regulating TRIM28. In conclusion, the findings of the present study suggested that SIK2 may be involved in CRC carcinogenesis and glycolysis by regulating TRIM28 expression. These findings could provide a novel approach to targeted therapy and clinical diagnosis of CRC in the future.

Prognostic significance of TRIM28 expression in patients with breast carcinoma

Background

Tripartite motif 28 (TRIM28) plays a role in multiple biological functions. The expression and function of TRIM28 in breast carcinoma (BC) remain unclear. The aim of this study was to explore potential association of TRIM28 with tumor features and survival.

Materials and methods

Specimens were collected from BC and adjacent normal tissues. Quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) were performed to detect TRIM28 expression. The correlation of TRIM28 with clinicopathological features was evaluated by Chi-square test. The relationship between TRIM28 expression and survival was further analyzed by the Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression method. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was used to assess the value of TRIM28 in predicting BC.

Results

In this retrospective research, it was demonstrated that TRIM28 was overexpressed in BC tissues. TRIM28 overexpression was correlated with lymph node metastasis, advanced TNM stage, and poor molecular subtype. The survival analysis showed that overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) were significantly shorter in TRIM28-positive group. Moreover, TRIM28 was an independent prognostic factor for BC. And ROC analysis verified the diagnostic role of TRIM28 in BC.

Conclusions

TRIM28 is overexpressed in BC and might be a promising prognostic and diagnostic biomarker of BC.

TRIM Proteins in Colorectal Cancer: TRIM8 as a Promising Therapeutic Target in Chemo Resistance

Colorectal cancer (CRC) represents one of the most widespread forms of cancer in the population and, as all malignant tumors, often develops resistance to chemotherapies with consequent tumor growth and spreading leading to the patient’s premature death. For this reason, a great challenge is to identify new therapeutic targets, able to restore the drugs sensitivity of cancer cells. In this review, we discuss the role of TRIpartite Motifs (TRIM) proteins in cancers and in CRC chemoresistance, focusing on the tumor-suppressor role of TRIM8 protein in the reactivation of the CRC cells sensitivity to drugs currently used in the clinical practice. Since the restoration of TRIM8 protein levels in CRC cells recovers chemotherapy response, it may represent a new promising therapeutic target in the treatment of CRC.

Multifaceted Roles of TRIM Proteins in Colorectal Carcinoma

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most frequently diagnosed tumor in humans and one of the most common causes of cancer-related death worldwide. The pathogenesis of CRC follows a multistage process which together with somatic gene mutations is mainly attributed to the dysregulation of signaling pathways critically involved in the maintenance of homeostasis of epithelial integrity in the intestine. A growing number of studies has highlighted the critical impact of members of the tripartite motif (TRIM) protein family on most types of human malignancies including CRC. In accordance, abundant expression of many TRIM proteins has been observed in CRC tissues and is frequently correlating with poor survival of patients. Notably, some TRIM members can act as tumor suppressors depending on the context and the type of cancer which has been assessed. Mechanistically, most cancer-related TRIMs have a critical impact on cell cycle control, apoptosis, epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), metastasis, and inflammation mainly through directly interfering with diverse oncogenic signaling pathways. In addition, some recent publications have emphasized the emerging role of some TRIM members to act as transcription factors and RNA-stabilizing factors thus adding a further level of complexity to the pleiotropic biological activities of TRIM proteins. The current review focuses on oncogenic signaling processes targeted by different TRIMs and their particular role in the development of CRC. A better understanding of the crosstalk of TRIMs with these signaling pathways relevant for CRC development is an important prerequisite for the validation of TRIM proteins as novel biomarkers and as potential targets of future therapies for CRC.