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Ali SA, Datusalia AK. Protective effects of Tinospora cordifolia miers extract against hepatic and neurobehavioral deficits in thioacetamide-induced hepatic encephalopathy in rats via modulating hyperammonemia and glial cell activation. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 323:117700. [PMID: 38176666 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2023.117700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Tinospora cordifolia (TC) a potential medicinal herb, has been ethnobotanically used as an eco-friendly supplement to manage various diseases, including cerebral fever. Earlier studies have shown that TC exhibits diverse beneficial effects, including hepatoprotective and neuroprotective effects. However, the effects of TC remain unexplored in animal models of encephalopathy including hepatic encephalopathy (HE). AIM OF THE STUDY To evaluate the effects of TC stem extract against thioacetamide (TAA)-induced behavioural and molecular alterations in HE rats. METHODS AND MATERIALS The extract was preliminarily screened through phytochemical and HR-LC/MS analysis. Animals were pre-treated with TC extract at doses 30 and 100 mg/kg, orally. Following 7 days of TC pre-treatment, HE was induced by administering TAA (300 mg/kg, i. p. thrice). Behavioural assessments were performed after 56 h of TAA first dose. The animals were then sacrificed to assess biochemical parameters in serum, liver and brain. Liver tissue was used for immunoblotting and histological studies to evaluate inflammatory and fibrotic signalling. Moreover, brain tissue was used to evaluate brain edema, activation of glial cells (GFAP, IBA-1) and NF-κB/NLRP3 downstream signalling via immunoblotting and immunohistochemical analysis in cortex and hippocampus. RESULTS The pre-treatment with TC extract effective mitigated TAA-induced behavioural alterations, lowered serum LFT (AST, ALT, ALP, bilirubin) and oxidative stress markers in liver and brain. TC treatment significantly modulated hyperammonemia, cerebral edema and preserved the integrity of BBB proteins in HE animals. TC treatment attenuated TAA-induced histological changes, tissue inflammation (pNF-κB (p65), TNF-α, NLRP3) and fibrosis (collagen, α-SMA) in liver. In addition, immunoblotting analysis revealed TC pre-treatment inhibited fibrotic proteins such as vimentin, TGF-β1 and pSmad2/3 in the liver. Our study further showed that TC treatment downregulated the expression of MAPK/NF-κB inflammatory signalling, as well as GFAP and IBA-1 (glial cell markers) in cortex and hippocampus of TAA-intoxicated rats. Additionally, TC-treated animals exhibited reduced expression of caspase3/9 and BAX induced by TAA. CONCLUSION This study revealed promising insights on the protective effects of TC against HE. The findings clearly demonstrated that the significant inhibition of MAPK/NF-κB signalling and glial cell activation could be responsible for the observed beneficial effects of TC in TAA-induced HE rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Afroz Ali
- Laboratory of Molecular NeuroTherapeutics, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Raebareli, India
| | - Ashok Kumar Datusalia
- Laboratory of Molecular NeuroTherapeutics, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Raebareli, India; Department of Regulatory Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Raebareli, India.
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Xiao Y, Wang W, Peng S, Lu Y, Du J, Cai W. Farnesoid X receptor agonist tropifexor detoxifies ammonia by regulating the glutamine metabolism and urea cycles in cholestatic livers. Eur J Pharmacol 2024; 966:176334. [PMID: 38286357 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.176334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
Hyperammonemia refers to elevated levels of ammonia in the blood, which is an important pathological feature of liver cirrhosis and hepatic failure. Preclinical studies suggest tropifexor (TXR), a novel non-bile acid agonist of Farnesoid X Receptor (FXR), has shown promising effects on reducing hepatic steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis. This study evaluates the impact of TXR on hyperammonemia in a piglet model of cholestasis. We here observed blood ammonia significantly elevated in patients with biliary atresia (BA) and was positively correlated with liver injury. Targeted metabolomics and immunblotting showed glutamine metabolism and urea cycles were impaired in BA patients. Next, we observed that TXR potently suppresses bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced injuries in liver and brain with improving the glutamine metabolism and urea cycles. Within the liver, TXR enhances glutamine metabolism and urea cycles by up-regulation of key regulatory enzymes, including glutamine synthetase (GS), carbamoyl-phosphate synthetase 1 (CPS1), argininosuccinate synthetase (ASS1), argininosuccinate lyase (ASL), and arginase 1 (ARG1). In primary mice hepatocytes, TXR detoxified ammonia via increasing ureagenesis. Mechanically, TXR activating FXR to increase express enzymes that regulating ureagenesis and glutamine synthesis through a transcriptional approach. Together, these results suggest that TXR may have therapeutic implications for hyperammonemic conditions in cholestatic livers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongtao Xiao
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Xin Hua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China; Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Institute of Pediatric Research, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Shanghai, China.
| | - Weipeng Wang
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Xin Hua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Shanghai, China
| | - Shicheng Peng
- Shanghai Institute of Pediatric Research, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Lu
- Shanghai Institute of Pediatric Research, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Shanghai, China
| | - Jun Du
- Shanghai Institute of Pediatric Research, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Cai
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Xin Hua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China; Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Institute of Pediatric Research, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Shanghai, China.
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Lu H, Zhang H, Wu Z, Li L. Microbiota-gut-liver-brain axis and hepatic encephalopathy. MICROBIOME RESEARCH REPORTS 2024; 3:17. [PMID: 38841407 PMCID: PMC11149093 DOI: 10.20517/mrr.2023.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a clinical manifestation of neurological and psychiatric abnormalities that are caused by complications of liver dysfunction including hyperammonemia, hyperuricemia, and portal hypertension. Accumulating evidence suggests that HE could be reversed through therapeutic modifications of gut microbiota. Multiple preclinical and clinical studies have indicated that gut microbiome affects the physiological function of the liver, such as the regulation of metabolism, secretion, and immunity, through the gut-liver crosstalk. In addition, gut microbiota also influences the brain through the gut-brain crosstalk, altering its physiological functions including the regulation of the immune, neuroendocrine, and vagal pathways. Thus, key molecules that are involved in the microbiota-gut-liver-brain axis might be able to serve as clinical biomarkers for early diagnosis of HE, and could be effective therapeutic targets for clinical interventions. In this review, we summarize the pathophysiology of HE and further propose approaches modulating the microbiota-gut-liver-brain axis in order to provide a comprehensive understanding of the prevention and potential clinical treatment for HE with a microbiota-targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Lanjuan Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, National Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, Zhejiang, China
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Claeys W, Verhaege D, Van Imschoot G, Van Wonterghem E, Van Acker L, Amelinck L, De Ponti FF, Scott C, Geerts A, Van Steenkiste C, Van Hoecke L, Vandenbroucke RE. Limitations of PLX3397 as a microglial investigational tool: peripheral and off-target effects dictate the response to inflammation. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1283711. [PMID: 38077359 PMCID: PMC10703484 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1283711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia, the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS), play a critical role in CNS homeostasis and neuroinflammation. Pexidartinib (PLX3397), a colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) receptor inhibitor, is widely used to deplete microglia, offering flexible options for both long-term depletion and highly versatile depletion-repopulation cycles. However, the potential impact of PLX3397 on peripheral (immune) cells remains controversial. Until now, the microglia-specificity of this type of compounds has not been thoroughly evaluated, particularly in the context of peripherally derived neuroinflammation. Our study addresses this gap by examining the effects of PLX3397 on immune cells in the brain, liver, circulation and bone marrow, both in homeostasis and systemic inflammation models. Intriguingly, we demonstrate that PLX3397 treatment not only influences the levels of tissue-resident macrophages, but also affects circulating and bone marrow immune cells beyond the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). These alterations in peripheral immune cells disrupt the response to systemic inflammation, consequently impacting the phenotype irrespective of microglial depletion. Furthermore, we observed that a lower dose of PLX3397, which does not deplete microglia, demonstrates similar (non-)MPS effects, both in the periphery and the brain, but fails to fully replicate the peripheral alterations seen in the higher doses, questioning lower doses as a 'peripheral control' strategy. Overall, our data highlight the need for caution when interpreting studies employing this compound, as it may not be suitable for specific investigation of microglial function in the presence of systemic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter Claeys
- Department of Internal Medicine and Paediatrics, Hepatology Research Unit, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Liver Research Center Ghent, Ghent University, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
- Barriers in Inflammation, VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Daan Verhaege
- Barriers in Inflammation, VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Griet Van Imschoot
- Barriers in Inflammation, VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Elien Van Wonterghem
- Barriers in Inflammation, VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lore Van Acker
- Barriers in Inflammation, VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Laura Amelinck
- Barriers in Inflammation, VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Federico F. De Ponti
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Biology in Tissue Damage and Inflammation, VIB–UGent Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Charlotte Scott
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Biology in Tissue Damage and Inflammation, VIB–UGent Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Anja Geerts
- Department of Internal Medicine and Paediatrics, Hepatology Research Unit, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Liver Research Center Ghent, Ghent University, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christophe Van Steenkiste
- Antwerp University, Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Maria Middelares Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lien Van Hoecke
- Barriers in Inflammation, VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Roosmarijn E. Vandenbroucke
- Barriers in Inflammation, VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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