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Li T, Liu R, Wang Q, Rao J, Liu Y, Dai Z, Gooneratne R, Wang J, Xie Q, Zhang X. A review of the influence of environmental pollutants (microplastics, pesticides, antibiotics, air pollutants, viruses, bacteria) on animal viruses. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 468:133831. [PMID: 38402684 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Microorganisms, especially viruses, cause disease in both humans and animals. Environmental chemical pollutants including microplastics, pesticides, antibiotics sand air pollutants arisen from human activities affect both animal and human health. This review assesses the impact of chemical and biological contaminants (virus and bacteria) on viruses including its life cycle, survival, mutations, loads and titers, shedding, transmission, infection, re-assortment, interference, abundance, viral transfer between cells, and the susceptibility of the host to viruses. It summarizes the sources of environmental contaminants, interactions between contaminants and viruses, and methods used to mitigate such interactions. Overall, this review provides a perspective of environmentally co-occurring contaminants on animal viruses that would be useful for future research on virus-animal-human-ecosystem harmony studies to safeguard human and animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry & Heyuan Branch, Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Health Aquaculture and Environmental Control, Guangdong, Guangzhou 510642, China; South China Collaborative Innovation Center for Poultry Disease Control and Product Safety, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of AgroAnimal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Vector Vaccine of Animal Virus, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Ruiheng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry & Heyuan Branch, Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Health Aquaculture and Environmental Control, Guangdong, Guangzhou 510642, China; South China Collaborative Innovation Center for Poultry Disease Control and Product Safety, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of AgroAnimal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Vector Vaccine of Animal Virus, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Qian Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry & Heyuan Branch, Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Health Aquaculture and Environmental Control, Guangdong, Guangzhou 510642, China; South China Collaborative Innovation Center for Poultry Disease Control and Product Safety, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of AgroAnimal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Vector Vaccine of Animal Virus, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Jiaqian Rao
- State Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry & Heyuan Branch, Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Health Aquaculture and Environmental Control, Guangdong, Guangzhou 510642, China; South China Collaborative Innovation Center for Poultry Disease Control and Product Safety, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of AgroAnimal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Vector Vaccine of Animal Virus, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yuanjia Liu
- College of Coastal Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Zhenkai Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry & Heyuan Branch, Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Health Aquaculture and Environmental Control, Guangdong, Guangzhou 510642, China; South China Collaborative Innovation Center for Poultry Disease Control and Product Safety, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of AgroAnimal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Vector Vaccine of Animal Virus, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Ravi Gooneratne
- Department of Wine, Food and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
| | - Jun Wang
- College of Marine Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Qingmei Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry & Heyuan Branch, Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Health Aquaculture and Environmental Control, Guangdong, Guangzhou 510642, China; South China Collaborative Innovation Center for Poultry Disease Control and Product Safety, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of AgroAnimal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Vector Vaccine of Animal Virus, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Xinheng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry & Heyuan Branch, Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agricultural Science and Technology, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Health Aquaculture and Environmental Control, Guangdong, Guangzhou 510642, China; South China Collaborative Innovation Center for Poultry Disease Control and Product Safety, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of AgroAnimal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Vector Vaccine of Animal Virus, Guangzhou 510642, China.
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Bruggemans A, Vansant G, Van de Velde P, Debyser Z. The HIV-2 OGH double reporter virus shows that HIV-2 is less cytotoxic and less sensitive to reactivation from latency than HIV-1 in cell culture. J Virus Erad 2023; 9:100343. [PMID: 37701289 PMCID: PMC10493508 DOI: 10.1016/j.jve.2023.100343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
A better understanding of HIV-1 latency is a research priority in HIV cure research. Conversely, little is known about the latency characteristics of HIV-2, the closely related human lentivirus. Though both viruses cause AIDS, HIV-2 infection progresses more slowly with significantly lower viral loads, even when corrected for CD4+ T cell counts. Hence a direct comparison of latency characteristics between HIV-1 and HIV-2 could provide important clues towards a functional cure. Transduction of SupT1 cells with single-round HIV-1 and HIV-2 viruses with an enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) reporter showed higher levels of eGFP expression for HIV-2 than HIV-1, while HIV-1 expression appeared more cytotoxic. To compare HIV-1 and HIV-2 gene expression, latency and reactivation in more detail, we have generated HIV-2 OGH, a replication deficient, near full- length, double reporter virus that discriminates latently and productively infected cells in cell culture. This construct is based on HIV-1 OGH, and to our knowledge, first of its kind for HIV-2. Using this construct we have observed a higher eGFP expression for HIV-2, but higher losses of HIV-1 transduced cells in SupT1 and Jurkat cells and a reduced sensitivity of HIV-2 for reactivation with TNF-α. In addition, we have analysed HIV-2 integration sites and their epigenetic environment. HIV-1 and HIV-2 share a preference for actively transcribed genes in gene-dense regions and favor active chromatin marks while disfavoring methylation markers associated with heterochromatin. In conclusion the HIV-2 OGH construct provides an interesting tool for studying HIV-2 expression, latency and reactivation. As simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and HIV-2 have been proposed to model a functional HIV cure, a better understanding of the mechanisms governing HIV-2 and SIV latency will be important to move forward. Further research is needed to investigate if HIV-2 uses similar mechanisms as HIV-1 to achieve its integration site selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Bruggemans
- Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Gerlinde Vansant
- Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Flanders, Belgium
| | | | - Zeger Debyser
- Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Flanders, Belgium
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Fandiño S, Gomez-Lucia E, Benítez L, Doménech A. Avian Leukosis: Will We Be Able to Get Rid of It? Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2358. [PMID: 37508135 PMCID: PMC10376345 DOI: 10.3390/ani13142358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian leukosis viruses (ALVs) have been virtually eradicated from commercial poultry. However, some niches remain as pockets from which this group of viruses may reemerge and induce economic losses. Such is the case of fancy, hobby, backyard chickens and indigenous or native breeds, which are not as strictly inspected as commercial poultry and which have been found to harbor ALVs. In addition, the genome of both poultry and of several gamebird species contain endogenous retroviral sequences. Circumstances that support keeping up surveillance include the detection of several ALV natural recombinants between exogenous and endogenous ALV-related sequences which, combined with the well-known ability of retroviruses to mutate, facilitate the emergence of escape mutants. The subgroup most prevalent nowadays, ALV-J, has emerged as a multi-recombinant which uses a different receptor from the previously known subgroups, greatly increasing its cell tropism and pathogenicity and making it more transmissible. In this review we describe the ALVs, their different subgroups and which receptor they use to infect the cell, their routes of transmission and their presence in different bird collectivities, and the immune response against them. We analyze the different systems to control them, from vaccination to the progress made editing the bird genome to generate mutated ALV receptors or selecting certain haplotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Fandiño
- Department of Animal Health, Veterinary Faculty, Complutense University of Madrid, Av. Puerta de Hierro s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Genetics, Physiology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid (UCM), C. de José Antonio Novais 12, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Research Group, "Animal Viruses" of Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Esperanza Gomez-Lucia
- Department of Animal Health, Veterinary Faculty, Complutense University of Madrid, Av. Puerta de Hierro s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Research Group, "Animal Viruses" of Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura Benítez
- Department of Genetics, Physiology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid (UCM), C. de José Antonio Novais 12, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Research Group, "Animal Viruses" of Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Doménech
- Department of Animal Health, Veterinary Faculty, Complutense University of Madrid, Av. Puerta de Hierro s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Research Group, "Animal Viruses" of Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Synergistic Immunosuppression of Avian Leukosis Virus Subgroup J and Infectious Bursal Disease Virus Is Responsible for Enhanced Pathogenicity. Viruses 2022; 14:v14102312. [PMID: 36298866 PMCID: PMC9608456 DOI: 10.3390/v14102312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Revised: 10/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, superinfections of avian leukosis virus subgroup J (ALV-J) and infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) have been frequently observed in nature, which has led to the increasing virulence in infected chickens. However, the reason for the enhanced pathogenicity has remained unclear. In this study, we demonstrated an effective candidate model for studying the outcome of superinfections with ALV-J and IBDV in cells and specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chicks. Through in vitro experiments, we found that ALV-J and IBDV can establish the superinfection models and synergistically promote the expression of IL-6, IL-10, IFN-α, and IFN-γ in DF-1 and CEF cells. In vivo, the weight loss, survival rate, and histopathological observations showed that more severe pathogenicity was present in the superinfected chickens. In addition, we found that superinfections of ALV-J and IBDV synergistically increased the viral replication of the two viruses and inflammatory mediator secretions in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, by measuring the immune organ indexes and blood proportions of CD3+, CD4+, and CD8α+ cells, our results showed that the more severe instances of immunosuppression were observed in the superinfected chickens. In the present study, we concluded that the more severe immunosuppression induced by the synergistic viral replication of ALV-J and IBDV is responsible for the enhanced pathogenicity.
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Tang S, Li J, Chang YF, Lin W. Avian Leucosis Virus-Host Interaction: The Involvement of Host Factors in Viral Replication. Front Immunol 2022; 13:907287. [PMID: 35693802 PMCID: PMC9178239 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.907287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Avian leukosis virus (ALV) causes various diseases associated with tumor formation and decreased fertility. Moreover, ALV induces severe immunosuppression, increasing susceptibility to other microbial infections and the risk of failure in subsequent vaccination against other diseases. There is growing evidence showing the interaction between ALV and the host. In this review, we will survey the present knowledge of the involvement of host factors in the important molecular events during ALV infection and discuss the futuristic perspectives from this angle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Tang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, and Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jie Li
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Yung-Fu Chang
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Wencheng Lin
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, and Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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Zhang X, Chen L, Liao Z, Dai Z, Yan Y, Yao Z, Chen S, Xie Z, Zhao Q, Chen F, Xie Q. TCP1 mediates gp37 of avian leukosis virus subgroup J to inhibit autophagy through activating AKT in DF-1 cells. Vet Microbiol 2022; 271:109472. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2022.109472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2021] [Revised: 05/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Qu X, Li X, Li Z, Liao M, Dai M. Chicken Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Response to Avian Leukosis Virus Subgroup J Infection Assessed by Single-Cell RNA Sequencing. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:800618. [PMID: 35359721 PMCID: PMC8964181 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.800618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Chicken peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) exhibit wide-ranging cell types, but current understanding of their subclasses, immune cell classification, and function is limited and incomplete. Here we performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of PBMCs in Avian leukosis virus subgroup J (ALV-J) infected and control chickens at 21 days post infection (DPI) to determine chicken PBMCs subsets and their specific molecular and cellular characteristics. Eight cell populations and their potential marker genes were identified in PBMCs. T cell populations had the strongest response to (ALV-J) infection, based on the detection of the largest number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs), and could be further grouped into four subsets: activated CD4+ T cells, Th1-like cells, Th2-like cells, and cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. Furthermore, pseudotime analysis results suggested that chicken CD4+ T cells could potentially differentiate into Th1-like and Th2-like cells. Moreover, ALV-J infection activated CD4+ T cell was probably inclined to differentiate into Th1-like cells. Compared to the control PBMCs, ALV-J infection also had an obvious impact on PBMCs composition. B cells showed inconspicuous response and their numbers decreased in PBMCs from ALV-J infected chicken. Proportions of cytotoxic Th1-like cells and CD8+ T cells increased in the T cell population of PBMCs from ALV-J infected chicken, which were potentially key mitigating effectors against ALV-J infection. More importantly, our results provide a rich resource of gene expression profiles of chicken PBMCs subsets for a systems-level understanding of their function in homeostatic condition as well as in response to viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyun Qu
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaobo Li
- Core Facilities for Medical Science, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ziwei Li
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ming Liao
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Manman Dai
- National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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He S, Zheng G, Zhou D, Huang L, Dong J, Cheng Z. High-frequency and activation of CD4 +CD25 + T cells maintain persistent immunotolerance induced by congenital ALV-J infection. Vet Res 2021; 52:119. [PMID: 34526112 PMCID: PMC8442411 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-021-00989-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Congenital avian leukosis virus subgroup J (ALV-J) infection can induce persistent immunotolerance in chicken, however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that congenital ALV-J infection induces the production of high-frequency and activated CD4+CD25+ Tregs that maintain persistent immunotolerance. A model of congenital infection by ALV-J was established in fertilized eggs, and hatched chicks showed persistent immunotolerance characterized by persistent viremia, immune organ dysplasia, severe imbalance of the ratio of CD4+/CD8+ T cells in blood and immune organs, and significant decrease in CD3+ T cells and Bu-1+ B cells in the spleen. Concurrently, the mRNA levels of IL-2, IL-10, and IFN-γ showed significant fluctuations in immune organs. Moreover, the frequency of CD4+CD25+ Tregs in blood and immune organs significantly increased, and the frequency of CD4+CD25+ Tregs was positively correlated with changes in ALV-J load in immune organs. Interestingly, CD4+CD25+ Tregs increased in the marginal zone of splenic nodules in ALV-J-infected chickens and dispersed to the germinal center. In addition, the proliferation and activation of B cells in splenic nodules was inhibited, and the number of IgM+ and IgG+ cells in the marginal zone significantly decreased. We further found that the mRNA levels of TGF- β and CTLA-4 in CD4+CD25+ Tregs of ALV-J-infected chickens significantly increased. Together, high-frequency and activated CD4+CD25+ Tregs inhibited B cells functions by expressing the inhibitory cytokine TGF-β and inhibitory surface receptor CTLA-4, thereby maintaining persistent immunotolerance in congenital ALV-J-infected chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhai He
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, No 61, Daizong Street, Tai'an, 271018, Shandong, China.,College of Husbandry and Veterinary, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, No 1, North Ring Road, Xinyang, 464000, Henan, China
| | - Gaoying Zheng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, No 61, Daizong Street, Tai'an, 271018, Shandong, China
| | - Defang Zhou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, No 61, Daizong Street, Tai'an, 271018, Shandong, China
| | - Li Huang
- College of Husbandry and Veterinary, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, No 1, North Ring Road, Xinyang, 464000, Henan, China
| | - Jianguo Dong
- College of Husbandry and Veterinary, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, No 1, North Ring Road, Xinyang, 464000, Henan, China
| | - Ziqiang Cheng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, No 61, Daizong Street, Tai'an, 271018, Shandong, China.
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Zarei Ghobadi M, Emamzadeh R, Teymoori-Rad M, Mozhgani SH. Decoding pathogenesis factors involved in the progression of ATLL or HAM/TSP after infection by HTLV-1 through a systems virology study. Virol J 2021; 18:175. [PMID: 34446027 PMCID: PMC8393454 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-021-01643-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human T-cell Leukemia Virus type-1 (HTLV-1) is a retrovirus that causes two diseases including Adult T-cell Leukemia/Lymphoma (ATLL cancer) and HTLV-1 Associated Myelopathy/Tropical Spastic Paraparesis (HAM/TSP, a neurodegenerative disease) after a long latency period as an asymptomatic carrier (AC). There are no obvious explanations about how each of the mentioned diseases develops in the AC carriers. Finding the discriminative molecular factors and pathways may clarify the destiny of the infection. Methods To shed light on the involved molecular players and activated pathways in each state, differentially co-expressed modules (DiffCoEx) algorithm was employed to identify the highly correlated genes which were co-expressed differently between normal and ACs, ACs and ATLL, as well as ACs and HAM/TSP samples. Through differential pathway analysis, the dysregulated pathways and the specific disease-genes-pathways were figured out. Moreover, the common genes between the member of DiffCoEx and differentially expressed genes were found and the specific genes in ATLL and HAM/TSP were introduced as possible biomarkers. Results The dysregulated genes in the ATLL were mostly enriched in immune and cancer-related pathways while the ones in the HAM/TSP were enriched in immune, inflammation, and neurological pathways. The differential pathway analysis clarified the differences between the gene players in the common activated pathways. Eventually, the final analysis revealed the involvement of specific dysregulated genes including KIRREL2, RAB36, and KANK1 in HAM/TSP as well as LTB4R2, HCN4, FZD9, GRIK5, CREB3L4, TACR2, FRMD1, LHB, FGF3, TEAD3, GRIN2D, GNRH2, PRLH, GPR156, and CRHR2 in ATLL. Conclusion The identified potential prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets are proposed as the most important platers in developing ATLL or HAM/TSP. Moreover, the proposed signaling network clarifies the differences between the functional players in the activated pathways in ACs, ATLL, and HAM/TSP. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12985-021-01643-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohadeseh Zarei Ghobadi
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Science and Technology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Rahman Emamzadeh
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Science and Technology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran.
| | - Majid Teymoori-Rad
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sayed-Hamidreza Mozhgani
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran.,Non‑Communicable Diseases Research Center, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
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Phylogenetic Analysis of ALV-J Associated with Immune Responses in Yellow Chicken Flocks in South China. Mediators Inflamm 2021; 2021:6665871. [PMID: 33628117 PMCID: PMC7886527 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6665871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to better understand the sequence characteristics and immune responses in avian leukosis virus subgroup J (ALV-J) infected yellow chicken flocks in South China. We isolated four strains of ALV-J virus from these flocks, which were then identified by several methods, including subtype-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and immunofluorescence assay (IFA). All four viruses were sequenced for their complete genomes and named GD19GZ01, GD19GZ02, GD19GZ03, and GD19GZ04. In comparison with the reference sequence, the homology analysis showed that the gag and pol genes were relatively conserved, whereas env contained much variation. Both GD19GZ01 and GD19GZ02 almost entirely lacked the rTM region and E element, while the latter was retained in GD19GZ03 and GD19GZ04. Moreover, the virus replication levels in GD19GZ03 and GD19GZ04were much higher than those in GD19GZ01 and GD19GZ02. And three virus recombination events in GD19GZ01 and GD19GZ02 were revealed by the results of PDR5 and SimPlot software analysis. Additionally, we found that some interferon-stimulating genes (CH25H, MX, PKR, OAS, and ZAP) and inflammatory mediators (IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, 1L-18, and TNF-α) were significantly upregulated in the immune system organs of clinical chickens. Taken together, these findings clarify and reveal the sequence characteristics and trends in the variation of ALV-J infection in yellow chicken flocks of South China.
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Liu Z, Liang J, Chen S, Wang K, Liu X, Liu B, Xia Y, Guo M, Zhang X, Sun G, Tian G. Genome editing of CCR5 by AsCpf1 renders CD4 +T cells resistance to HIV-1 infection. Cell Biosci 2020; 10:85. [PMID: 32670545 PMCID: PMC7346486 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-020-00444-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The chemokine receptor CCR5 is one of the co-receptor of HIV-1 infection. People with homozygous CCR5Δ32 deletion resist HIV-1 infection, which makes the CCR5 an important target for HIV-1 gene therapy. Although the CRISPR/Cas9 has ever been used for HIV-1 study, the newly developed CRISPR/AsCpf1 has never been utilized in HIV-1 co-receptor disruption. The CRISPR/Cpf1 system shows many advantages over CRISPR/Cas9, such as lower off-target, small size of nuclease, easy sgRNA design for multiplex gene editing, etc. Therefore, the CRISPR/Cpf1 mediated gene editing will confer a more specific and safe strategy in HIV-1 co-receptor disruption. Results Here, we demonstrated that CRISPR/AsCpf1 could ablate the main co-receptor of HIV-1 infection-CCR5 efficiently with two screened sgRNAs via different delivery strategies (lentivirus, adenovirus). The edited cells resisted R5-tropic HIV-1 infection but not X4-tropic HIV-1 infection compared with the control group in different cell types of HIV-1 study (TZM.bl, SupT1-R5, Primary CD4+T cells). Meanwhile, the edited cells exhibited selective advantage over unedited cells while under the pressure of R5-tropic HIV-1. Furthermore, we clarified that the predicted off-target sites of selected sgRNAs were very limited, which is much less than regular using sgRNAs for CRISPR/Cas9, and no evident off-target was observed. We also showed that the disruption of CCR5 by CRISPR/AsCpf1 took no effects on cell proliferation and apoptosis. Conclusions Our study provides a basis for a possible application of CCR5-targeting gene editing by CRISPR/AsCpf1 with high specific sgRNAs against HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhepeng Liu
- Department of Biotherapy Research Center, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfeng East Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510060 People's Republic of China.,Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, The Second People's Hospital of Shenzhen, 3002 Sungang West Road, Shenzhen, 518035 People's Republic of China
| | - Jin Liang
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, The Second People's Hospital of Shenzhen, 3002 Sungang West Road, Shenzhen, 518035 People's Republic of China
| | - Shuliang Chen
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071 People's Republic of China
| | - Kewu Wang
- Department of Oncology, The Second People's Hospital of Wuhu, Wuhu, 242401 People's Republic of China
| | - Xianhao Liu
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, The Second People's Hospital of Shenzhen, 3002 Sungang West Road, Shenzhen, 518035 People's Republic of China
| | - Beibei Liu
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, The Second People's Hospital of Shenzhen, 3002 Sungang West Road, Shenzhen, 518035 People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Xia
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, The Second People's Hospital of Shenzhen, 3002 Sungang West Road, Shenzhen, 518035 People's Republic of China
| | - Mingxiong Guo
- College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071 People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoshi Zhang
- Department of Biotherapy Research Center, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfeng East Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510060 People's Republic of China
| | - Guihong Sun
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071 People's Republic of China
| | - Geng Tian
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, The Second People's Hospital of Shenzhen, 3002 Sungang West Road, Shenzhen, 518035 People's Republic of China
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12
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He S, Zheng G, Yang X, Dong J, Zhou D, Venugopal N, Yao Y, Cheng Z. Avian leukosis virus subgroup J induces B cell anergy mediated by Lyn inhibited BCR signal transduction. Vet Microbiol 2020; 247:108781. [PMID: 32768227 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2020.108781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Immune tolerance induced by avian leukosis virus subgroup J (ALV-J) is a prerequisite for tumorigenesis. Although we had reported that B cell anergy induced by ALV-J was the main reason for immune tolerance, the molecular mechanism still remains unclear. Here, we found SU protein of ALV-J interacted with tyrosine kinase Lyn (a key protein in BCR signaling pathway) by confocal laser scanning microscopy and co-immunoprecipitation test, which suggested that Lyn might play an important role in B cell anergy induced by ALV-J. Correspondingly, the mRNA and protein level of Lyn was significantly up-regulated in B cells after ALV-J infection. Subsequently, the phosphorylated protein levels of Lyn at Tyr507 site were significantly up-regulated in ALV-J-infected B cells after BCR signal activation, but the phosphorylated protein level of Syk (a direct substrate of Lyn) at Tyr525/526 site, Ca2+ flux, and NF-κB p65 protein level were significantly down-regulated. Interestingly, the phosphorylated protein level of Syk at Tyr525/526 site, Ca2+ flux, and NF-κB p65 protein level were both significantly retrieved after the shLyn treatment in B cells infected by ALV-J. In summary, these results indicated that ALV-J activated the negative regulatory effect of phosphorylated Lyn protein at 507 site in BCR signal transduction pathway and then mediated B cell anergy, which will provide a new insight for revealing the pathogenesis of immune tolerance induced by ALV-J.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhai He
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, No 61, Daizong Street, Tai'an City, Shandong Province, 271018, China; College of Husbandry and Veterinary, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, No 1, North Ring Road, Xinyang City, Henan Province, 464000, China.
| | - Gaoying Zheng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, No 61, Daizong Street, Tai'an City, Shandong Province, 271018, China.
| | - Xiaoxia Yang
- Hospital of Shandong Agricultural University, No 61, Daizong Street, Tai'an City, Shandong Province, 271018, China.
| | - Jianguo Dong
- College of Husbandry and Veterinary, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, No 1, North Ring Road, Xinyang City, Henan Province, 464000, China.
| | - Defang Zhou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, No 61, Daizong Street, Tai'an City, Shandong Province, 271018, China.
| | - Nair Venugopal
- The Pirbright Institute & UK-China Centre of Excellence on Avian Disease Research, Pirbright, Ash Road, Guildford, Surrey, GU24 0NF, UK.
| | - Yongxiu Yao
- The Pirbright Institute & UK-China Centre of Excellence on Avian Disease Research, Pirbright, Ash Road, Guildford, Surrey, GU24 0NF, UK.
| | - Ziqiang Cheng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, No 61, Daizong Street, Tai'an City, Shandong Province, 271018, China.
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13
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Hirakawa R, Nurjanah S, Furukawa K, Murai A, Kikusato M, Nochi T, Toyomizu M. Heat Stress Causes Immune Abnormalities via Massive Damage to Effect Proliferation and Differentiation of Lymphocytes in Broiler Chickens. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:46. [PMID: 32118068 PMCID: PMC7020782 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Broiler chickens are highly sensitive to high ambient temperatures due to their feathers, lack of skin sweat glands, and high productivity. Heat stress (HS) is a major concern for the poultry industry because it negatively affects growth as well as immune functions, which increase the potential risk of infectious disease outbreaks. Therefore, it is vital to elucidate HS's effect on the avian immune system, especially considering the global rise in average surface temperature. Our study identified a series of immunological disorders in heat-stressed broiler chickens. We exposed 22-day-old broiler chickens to a continuous HS condition (34.5 ± 0.5°C) for 14 days and immunized them with a prototype bovine serum albumin (BSA) antigen. The plasma and lymphoid tissues (thymus, bursa of Fabricius, and spleen) were harvested at the end of the experiments to investigate the induction of BSA-specific immune responses. Our results revealed that plasma titers of immunoglobulin (Ig)Y, IgM, and IgA antibodies specific for BSA were lower than those of thermoneutral chickens immunized with BSA. Furthermore, the spleens of the heat-stressed broiler chickens displayed severe depression of Bu1+ B cells and CD3+ T cells, including CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells, and lacked a fully developed germinal center (GC), which is crucial for B cell proliferation. These immunological abnormalities might be associated with severe depression of CD4−CD8− or CD4+CD8+ cells, which are precursors of either helper or killer T cells in the thymus and Bu1+ B cells in the bursa of Fabricius. Importantly, HS severely damaged the morphology of the thymic cortex and bursal follicles, where functional maturation of T and B cells occur. These results indicate that HS causes multiple immune abnormalities in broiler chickens by impairing the developmental process and functional maturation of T and B cells in both primary and secondary lymphoid tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Hirakawa
- Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Division of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.,International Education and Research Center for Food and Agricultural Immunology, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Siti Nurjanah
- Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Division of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.,International Education and Research Center for Food and Agricultural Immunology, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Kyohei Furukawa
- Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Division of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.,International Education and Research Center for Food and Agricultural Immunology, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Atsushi Murai
- Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Department of Animal Sciences, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Motoi Kikusato
- Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Division of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.,International Education and Research Center for Food and Agricultural Immunology, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Tomonori Nochi
- International Education and Research Center for Food and Agricultural Immunology, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.,Laboratory of Functional Morphology, Division of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.,International Research and Development Center for Mucosal Vaccine, Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaaki Toyomizu
- Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Division of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.,International Education and Research Center for Food and Agricultural Immunology, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
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14
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Chang F, Xing L, Xing Z, Yu M, Bao Y, Wang S, Farooque M, Li X, Liu P, Pan Q, Qi X, Gao L, Li K, Liu C, Zhang Y, Cui H, Wang X, Gao Y. Development and evaluation of a gp85 protein-based subgroup-specific indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of anti-subgroup J avian leukosis virus antibodies. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:1785-1793. [PMID: 31900555 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-10320-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Revised: 12/08/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Avian leukosis virus subgroup J (ALV-J) is an important pathogen for various neoplasms and causes significant economic losses in the poultry industry. Serological detection of specific antibodies against ALV-J infection is important for successful clinical diagnosis. Here, a 293F stable cell line was established to stably express gp85 protein. In this cell line, gp85 protein was expressed at approximately 30 mg/L. A subgroup-specific indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) was developed using ALV-J gp85 protein as coated antigen to detect antibodies against ALV-J. The sensitivity of the iELISA (1:51200 diluted in serum) was 16 times more than that of indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA; 1:3200 diluted in serum). Moreover, there was no crossreactivity with antibodies against other common avian viruses and other avian leukosis virus subgroups, such as subgroups A and B. The practicality of the iELISA was further evaluated by experimental infection and clinical samples. The results from experimental infection indicated that anti-ALV-J antibodies were readily detected by iELISA as early as 4 weeks after ALV-J infection, and positive antibodies were detected until 20 weeks, with an antibody-positive rate of 11.1% to 33.3%. Moreover, analysis of clinical samples showed that 9.49% of samples were positive for anti-ALV-J antibodies, and the concordance rate of iELISA and IFA was 99.24%. Overall, these results suggested that the subgroup-specific iELISA developed in this study had good sensitivity, specificity, and feasibility. This iELISA will be very useful for epidemiological surveillance, diagnosis, and eradication of ALV-J in poultry farms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfang Chang
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Lixiao Xing
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhifeng Xing
- Heilongjiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengmeng Yu
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanling Bao
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Suyan Wang
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Muhammad Farooque
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinyi Li
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Liu
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Qing Pan
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaole Qi
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Gao
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Kai Li
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Changjun Liu
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanping Zhang
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongyu Cui
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaomei Wang
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China. .,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonose, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China.
| | - Yulong Gao
- Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 678 Haping Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150069, Heilongjiang Province, People's Republic of China.
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