The use of fish and herptiles in traditional folk therapies in three districts of Chenab riverine area in Punjab, Pakistan

Ethnopharmacological uses of fauna among the people of central Punjab, Pakistan

Introduction

The utilization of fauna and fauna-based byproducts in ethnomedicinal usages has been a longstanding human activity, practiced across various cultures worldwide. This study focuses on investigating the utilization of animal-based traditional medicine by the people of Pakistan, specifically in the Gujranwala area.

Methods

Data collection took place from January to September 2019 through interviews with local communities. Ethnomedicinal applications of animal products were analyzed using several indices, including Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), Relative Popularity Level (RPL), Folk Use Value (FL), and Relative Occurrence Percentage (ROP).

Results

The study identified the use of different body parts of 54 species of animals in treating various diseases and health issues. These include but are not limited to skin infections, sexual problems, pain management (e.g., in the backbone and joints), eyesight issues, immunity enhancement, cold, weakness, burns, smallpox, wounds, poisoning, muscular pain, arthritis, diabetes, fever, epilepsy, allergies, asthma, herpes, ear pain, paralysis, cough, swelling, cancer, bronchitis, girls' maturity, and stomach-related problems. Certain species of fauna were noted by informers with high "frequency of citation" (FC), ranging from 1 to 77. For instance, the black cobra was the most frequently cited animal for eyesight issues (FC = 77), followed by the domestic rabbit for burn treatment (FC = 67), and the Indus Valley spiny-tailed ground lizard for sexual problems (FC = 66). Passer domesticus and Gallus gallus were noted to have the highest ROP value of 99.

Discussion

The findings of this study provide valuable preliminary insights for the conservation of fauna in the Gujranwala region of Punjab, Pakistan. Additionally, screening these animals for medicinally active compounds could potentially lead to the development of novel animal-based medications, contributing to both traditional medicine preservation and modern pharmaceutical advancements.

Vernacular Taxonomy, Cultural and Ethnopharmacological Applications of Avian and Mammalian Species in the Vicinity of Ayubia National Park, Himalayan Region

Numerous investigations on plant ethnomedicinal applications have been conducted; however, knowledge about the medicinal use of wild animals is still limited. This present study is the second on the medicinal and cultural meaning of avian and mammalian species used by the population in the surrounding area of the Ayubia National Park, KPK, Pakistan. Interviews and meetings were compiled from the participants (N = 182) of the study area. The relative frequency of citation, fidelity level, relative popularity level, and rank order priority indices were applied to analyze the information. Overall, 137 species of wild avian and mammalian species were documented. Of these, 18 avian and 14 mammalian species were utilized to treat different diseases. The present research showed noteworthy ethno-ornithological and ethno-mammalogical knowledge of local people and their connection with fauna, which might be useful in the sustainable utilization of the biological diversity of the Ayubia National Park, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Furthermore, in vivo and/or in vitro examination of the pharmacological activities of species with the highest fidelity level (FL%) as well as frequency of mention (FM) might be important for investigations on faunal-based new drugs.

Invertebrates and herptiles for livelihoods-ethnozoological use among different ethnic communities in Jammu and Kashmir (Indian Himalayas)

BACKGROUND

Ethnic communities have relied on animals and their derived products for ages, and their use is often intricately related to many cultural features. In remote regions across the globe, indigenous peoples have been using invertebrates and herptiles for a variety of purposes (medicine, food, culture, and spiritual importance); however, related scientific research is sparse, particularly in the western Himalayas. In this respect, we collected useful information on invertebrates and herpetofauna from Jammu and Kashmir, India, across different ethnic groups, i.e., Gujjar, Bakarwal, Dogra, Kashmiri, and Pahari.

METHODOLOGY

The data were gathered using semi-structured interviews followed by group discussions. The information gathered was analyzed using ordination techniques (principal component analysis). The Venn diagram was used to investigate cross-cultural similarities and differences between ethnic groups.

RESULTS

We documented 30 species belonging to five classes and 20 families used for different ethnozoological practices (medicinal, magico-religious, food, costume, omen, poultry, and agricultural purposes). The use of fauna resources varied across ethnic groups, and cross-cultural examination revealed that Kashmiri and Pahari populations were more similar in their species utilization. The maximum number of species (27%) was uniquely used by Kashmiri, followed by Pahari (17%), and the least by Dogra and Gujjar (3% each). The ethnozoological use of all documented species is unprecedented. In addition to ethnozoological usage, various documented species (Apis cerana, Apis mellifera, Hirudinaria granulosa, and Bombyx mori) were also important for the local population's livelihoods.

CONCLUSION

Our findings can be considered the baseline for understanding the relationship of invertebrates and herptiles with specific ethnic groups and will aid in the development of future research projects that can assess the interaction between local fauna and the diverse ethnic groups.

Cross-cultural diversity analysis: traditional knowledge and uses of freshwater fish species by indigenous peoples of southern Punjab, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Fisheries have tremendous cultural and educational importance in human societies. The world is undergoing fast environmental and cultural changes, and local knowledge is being lost. Understanding how people interpret environmental change and develop practices in response to such change is essential to comprehend human resource use. This study was planned with the intent to document and conserve the knowledge about the uses of the freshwater fish fauna among the residents in South Punjab, Pakistan.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews and questionnaires were conducted to collect data from informers (N = 88). Principal component analysis, relative frequency citation, fidelity level, relative popularity level, rank-order priority, and similarity index were used to analyze the fish data.

RESULTS

Overall, a total of 43 species of fishes were utilized in the study region, but only 26 species were utilized ethnomedicinally to treat a variety of illnesses such as asthma, body weakness, burn, chicken pox, cold, cough, eyesight, hepatitis, impotence, joint pain, night blindness, skin burn, spleen treatment, stomach infection, and weakness. The uses of fishes were analyzed employing various indices. The highest use value (UV) of 0.86 was calculated for spotted snakehead (Channa punctata), whereas the lowest UV of 0.05 was attained by karail fish (Securicula gora). Moreover, Channa punctata, Cyprinus carpio, Labeo rohita, Oreochromis niloticus, Wallago attu, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Rita rita, Sperata seenghala, Notopterus notopterus, Labeo dyocheilus, Systomus sarana, Puntius punjabensis, Securicula gora, Ompok bimaculatus, and Ompok pabda were the most popular species with RPL = 1.0. Out of the total, 20 species had a "zero" similarity index, while the ethnomedicinal use of 12 species (i.e., Labeo dyocheilus, Labeo boggut, Systomus sarana, Puntius punjabensis, Aspidoparia morar, Securicula gora, Crossocheilus diplochilus, Mastacembelus armatus, Ompok bimaculatus, Ompok pabda, Labeo gonius, and Sperata seenghala) was documented for the first time for a variety of diseases (i.e., body weakness, stomach infection, skin burn, joint pain, impotence, asthma, spleen treatment, and chicken pox).

CONCLUSION

Our findings showed that the local people of the study area hold noteworthy traditional knowledge about the medicinal and cultural uses of fish species. Furthermore, a comprehensive analysis of active chemicals and in vivo and/or in vitro activities of chemicals derived from ichthyofauna with the highest FC as well as UVs could be interesting for research on new drugs.

Traditional Khmer Medicine and its role in wildlife use in modern-day Cambodia

Individuals across Cambodia depend on the use of natural products in Traditional Khmer Medicine (TKM), a traditional medicine system in Cambodia that has been practiced for hundreds of years. Cambodia is rich in fauna and flora species, many of which have been, and continue to be, traded domestically for traditional medicine use. Combined with other known exploitative practices, such as snaring for wild meat consumption and international trade in wildlife, domestic trade in wildlife medicine threatens populations of regional conservation importance. Here, we provide an updated understanding about how TKM is practiced in modern times; how TKM practices are transmitted and adapted; and roles of wildlife part remedies in TKM historically and presently. We conducted semi-structured interviews with TKM practitioners in Stung Treng, Mondulkiri Province, and at the National Center for Traditional Medicine in Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia. TKM is generally practiced in the private sector and is mostly informal, without enrollment in any academic training. TKM practitioner roles commonly involve collecting, preparing, selling, and advising on medicine, rather than providing direct treatment. Over half of the interviewed TKM practitioners (57.6%) were still prescribing wildlife parts as medicine over the past 5 years, with 28 species of wild animals reported. Lorises and porcupine were the wildlife products cited as being in highest demand in TKM, primarily prescribed for women's illnesses such as post-partum fatigue (Toas and Sawsaye kchey). However, the supply of wildlife products sourced from the wild was reported to have dropped in the 5 years prior to the survey, which represents an opportunity to reduce prescription of threatened wildlife. We suggest that our results be used to inform tailored demand reduction interventions designed to encourage greater reliance on biomedicine and non-threatened plants, particularly in rural areas where use of biomedicine may still be limited.

Traditional Use of Wild and Domestic Fauna among Different Ethnic Groups in the Western Himalayas—A Cross Cultural Analysis

Simple Summary

In traditional medicinal systems, animals play an essential role in treating health issues (zoo therapy) as different body parts are used to treat different diseases. Meanwhile, local traditional knowledge (TK) is an important aspect of cultural legacy that can depict the relationship between communities and nature. Recently ethnobiologists have focused on cross-cultural research in order to document and measure the processes that govern the evolution of traditional knowledge within a culture, as well as to use it in the future. In the present study, we documented ethnozoological knowledge across eight ethnic groups in the Jammu and Kashmir Himalayas. Comparative analysis indicated that Balti and Brokapa were more closely related groups due to high overlap (N = 7) of the use of medicinal species. A total of thirteen idiosyncratic species were recorded for the Kashmiri ethnic group, followed by two idiosyncratic species (Anser indicus, Perdix hodgsoniae) for Balti and two idiosyncratic species (Capra aegagrus hircus, Cuon alpinus) for Changapa. The Pearson correlation coefficient supported the strength and direction of a link between ethnic groups and regions. Cluster analyses revealed two primary clusters of the 79 animal species recorded for eight ethnozoological uses based on fauna similarity. Furthermore, all ethnic groups primarily used the fauna for medicinal and food purposes. Chest infections were frequently treated by the maximum number of species (N = 9), followed by paralysis by seven species. The current ethnozoological study provides needed information such as cross-cultural traditional knowledge of medicine, food, and religious value; combining ethnic knowledge with a scientific approach can make a significant contribution to the long-term development of native communities.

Abstract

Animal-derived products have an important role in treating many health conditions and have widely been used across cultures. In South Asia, ethnozoological research has been conducted only by a small number of researchers. Therefore, this area of research needs further exploration in order to preserve the eroding ethnozoological knowledge of medicinal animals severely affected by ongoing social change. This study was conducted in the region of Jammu and Kashmir from February 2019 to August 2021. The study was carried out among eight different ethnic groups living in the region. A total of 374 informants were selected and data were collected through semi-structured interviews and verified through group discussions. Data was analyzed using different statistical tools, including R 4.0.0. The cross-cultural data were compared through Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Genomics software and later subjected to further analysis, applying Pearson correlation and ordination techniques (Principal Component Analysis). We recorded a total of 79 animal species being used by the eight studied ethnic groups in the region. Wild animal species were mainly used for therapeutic purposes. Chest infections, sexual problems, and paralysis were frequently treated diseases. Flesh was the most commonly part used. The cross-cultural comparison showed a remarkable heterogeneity in the use of the animals among the different groups, which could be an effect to the historical sociocultural stratifications, as well as different religious affiliation of certain groups preventing them to forage or hunt certain animals. Some groups however showed prominent overlap of uses of some recorded species. For instance, Lerwalerwa and Bubalus bubalis were commonly used by both Gujjar and Pahari, which could be referred to the fact that they have gone through significant socio-cultural contact, and they are exogamous to each other. The Pearson correlation coefficient supported the strength and direction of an association between ethnic groups and regions. The study makes an important contribution to the field of ethnozoology in the Himalayas by providing insights to understand the historical human and nature relationships and supplying a baseline for developing future conservation efforts in the region to protect the wild fauna

Cultural and Medicinal Use of Amphibians and Reptiles by Indigenous People in Punjab, Pakistan with Comments on Conservation Implications for Herpetofauna

Simple Summary

Humans have interacted with reptile and amphibian species for millennia. The current study was designed to collect knowledge about the use of amphibian and reptile species by the native peoples residing along the Jhelum and Chenab rivers in Punjab, Pakistan. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first quantitative assessment of the cultural uses of amphibian and reptile species in the study area. However, hunting, trade, and cultural use are the greatest threats to the diversity of the amphibians and reptiles in the studied area. These threats can potentially lead to their extinction. It is important to protect the highly endangered and vulnerable species employed in therapeutic medications, more specifically in terms of their conservation.

Abstract

Amphibians and reptiles have interacted with humans for millennia. However, humans interact with amphibian and reptile species in different manners, which depend on their culture and traditions. This study was designed to better understand the interactions between amphibian and reptile species and their usage among the native peoples in the vicinity of the Jhelum and Chenab rivers, Pakistan. Information was collected through semi-structured interviews and questionnaires, and was analyzed by using different indices, including the frequency of citation, corrected fidelity level, fidelity level, relative importance level, and informant major ailment. Two amphibians and twenty-six reptile species were used in therapeutic medicine in the study area. Based on the cultural analysis, we found that Naja naja (black cobra) was highly cited across all cultural groups. A 100% Fidelity Level was calculated for the following species: Naja naja (eye infection), Varanus bengalensis (joint pain), Eurylepis taeniolatus (cataract), and Acanthodactylus cantoris (cancer). We found five endangered species in the study area, i.e., Aspideretes gangeticus, A. hurum, Chitra indica, Varanus flavescens, and Geoclemys hamiltonii, that were used to cure joint pain, muscle stretching and pain, backbone pain, paralysis, and psoriasis, respectively. Likewise, Lissemys punctata andersoni, a vulnerable species as labelled by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, was extensively used for the treatment of joint pain, body pain, paralysis, and arthritis in the study area. In terms of conservation, it is critical to protect the highly vulnerable and endangered species that are being used in therapeutic medicines. Our findings may be helpful for the conservation of amphibian and reptile species by helping to make an effective plan to prevent their extinction. The main threats to the diversity of amphibian and reptile species in the area are hunting, trading, and cultural use. These threats could potentially lead to the extinction of these species. Therefore, with the involvement of concerned authorities, e.g., local stakeholders, the Ministry of Climate Change, provincial wildlife departments, academia, and conservation managers, immediate conservation measures should be taken for the protection and sustainable utilization of medicinal species.

Antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral activity, and gas chromatographic analysis of Varanus griseus oil extracts

There is an urgent need to develop natural antimicrobials for the control of rapidly mutating drug-resistant bacteria and poultry viruses. Five extracts were prepared using diethyl ether, ethyl acetate, methanol, 1-butanol and n-hexane from abdominal fats of Varanus griseus locally known as Indian desert monitor. Antibacterial, antioxidant and antiviral activities from oil extracts were done through disc diffusion method, stable 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging assay and in ovo antiviral assay, respectively. The gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses were used to determine principal active compounds and chemical profile of each oil extract. n-Hexane extract showed clear zones of inhibition (ZOI) against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae (12 ± 0.5 mm, 9 ± 0.5 mm, and 9 ± 0.5 mm) while diethyl ether extract exhibited significant antibacterial activity (11 ± 0.5 mm) against Proteus vulgaris only. In case of drug-resistant strains, methanol extract was active (6 ± 0.5 mm) against Staphylococcus aureus, whereas n-hexane extract has shown ZOI 11 ± 0.5 mm against P. aeruginosa. Range of percentage scavenging activity of V. griseus oil extracts from DPPH free radical assay was 34.9-70.7%. For antiviral potential, growth of new castle disease virus (NDV) was effectively inhibited by all five extracts (HA titer = 0-4). The highest antiviral activity against avian influenza virus (H9N2) was observed from methanol, diethyl ether and 1-Butanol oil extracts with HA titers of 2, 2 and 0, respectively. Methanol, diethyl ether, 1-butanol and n-hexane oil extracts produced best hemagglutination assay (HA) titer values (0, 0, 4 and 0) against infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). Ethyl acetate and 1-Butanol extract exhibited good antiviral potential against infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) with indirect hemagglutination assay (IHA) titers of 8 and 4, respectively. Main classes of identified compounds through gas chromatography were aldehydes, fatty acids, phenols and esters. GC-MS identified 11 bioactive compounds in V. griseus oil extracts. It is summarized that V. griseus oil has strong antioxidant activity and good antimicrobial potential because of its bioactive compounds.

Traditional Food and Medicine: Ethno-Traditional Usage of Fish Fauna across the Valley of Kashmir: A Western Himalayan Region

People have traditionally relied on fish to supply their major food and healthcare needs all across the world. However, there has been little focus on the traditional dietary, cultural identity, and integrity of traditional food systems in many rural Himalayan populations. The current study looks into the use of fish in traditional food and foraging practices, as well as its role in local traditional medicine and cultural practices. Semi-structured interviews and group discussions were used to collect data in the years 2020–2021. The data were analyzed using various statistical indices such as the fidelity level (FL), rank order priority (ROP), and relative popularity level (RPL). The data were then classified through a heat map, and ordination techniques were used to refine them even further. The current study identified 20 fish species of five families, with Cyprinidae (70%) as the dominant family. Three unique traditional fish preservation techniques were documented, namely: (1) smoking, (2) sun drying, and (3) pickling. The smoked fish are locally called fari, sun-dried fish are known as hugaad, and pickled fish are gaad anchaar. As a result of rapid modernization, fish has become a symbol of social class in the valley. In total, 17 diseases were identified, with joint pain being treated by the greatest number of species (N = 10). Flesh (43%) was the most commonly used part to treat various diseases. The mode of application of various fishbody parts for treating a variety of diseases was most commonly peroral (65%), followed by topical (35%). Schizopyge niger demonstrated the highest level of fidelity (82%) for joint pain. Schizopygeniger, Schizothorax curvifrons, Catla catla, Schizothorax esocinus, Schizothorax labiatus, and Schizothorax plagiostomus were the most popular (relative popularity level = 1.0). The rank order priority of six species was above 55 (Schizothorax plagiostomus (59.18), Labeo dyocheilus (61.99) Schizothorax labiatus (64.28), Schizothorax esocinus (68.36), Schizothorax curvifrons (73.19), and Schizopyge niger (82)). Two principal groups of six ethno-zoological categories (medicine, food, black magic, poultry, agricultural, and recreational) were identified using cluster analysis. Fish are also important as a source of livelihood and are closely associated with a local ethnic group known as Hanji/Haanz, who have extensive knowledge of ecology of the local fish species. Our research will contribute to filling a knowledge gap in the Kashmir Himalayan region, with policy implications for the protection and preservation of high-quality traditional knowledge for future generations. The findings of this documentation study can be used as an ethnopharmacological foundation for selecting fish in future pharmaceutical research.

Medicinal Animals and Plants as Alternative and Complementary Medicine in Southern Regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Background: Local communities use animals and plants as common traditional therapies for various diseases. The study aimed to document animals and animal-plant mixture recipes that are used as alternative and complementary medicine in southern regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

Methods: The data were collected (2017–2018) in three remote areas (Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, and Lakki Marwat) through questionnaires and face-to-face interviews with local inhabitants. Data on ethnomedicinal uses and cultural values of animal products or parts and their mixture with plants were analyzed using various indices such as frequency of citation (FC), informant consensus (FIC), and fidelity level (FL) to find the highly preferred species in the area.

Results: A total of 185 informants (117 females and 68 males) were interviewed. The study documented 32 animal species, vertebrates (n = 24) and invertebrates (n = 8), for curing 37 types of diseases. Mammals (n = 13) were among the most commonly utilized species followed by birds (n = 8), arthropods (n = 7), reptiles (n = 2), and fishes and annelids (n = 1 each). Among the reported animals, Herpestes edwardsi (mongoose), Macaca mulatta (monkey), Labeo rohita (rohu), Oryctolagus cuniculus (rabbit), and Streptopelia decaocto (dove) were the newly reported species used as alternative medicine. The meat of Capra hircus (goat), monkey, and rabbit was used to treat chronic diseases such as hepatitis C, cancer, epilepsy, and asthma. A total of 17 plants belonging to 15 botanical families were used in combination with animal parts/products. The commonly used families were Piperaceae (31%) followed by Apiaceae (27%). The notable plant species in combination with animal products were Curcuma longa, Piper nigrum, Coriandrum sativum, Brassica rapa, and Phoenix dactylifera. Seeds were the highest used part in animal-plant mixture recipes. Gallus gallus (chicken) and Columba livia (pigeon) secured the highest (FC = 28) and (FL = 80%), respectively. FIC results had shown the highest degree of consensus for general body weakness (FIC = 0.88) and pyrexia (FIC = 0.86).

Conclusion: Our findings suggest that local communities in the southern regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have substantial knowledge about the formulation of ethnomedicines from both flora and fauna that need urgent documentation to avoid eroding and for conservational purposes. The newly reported phytozootherapeutic recipes and animal species can potentially be a source of pharmacologically active constituents and should be checked experimentally for further confirmation.