Critically ill patients with acute cholecystitis are at increased risk for extensive gallbladder inflammation

Might simple peripheral blood parameters be an early indicator in the prediction of severity and morbidity of cholecystitis?

Purpose

The aim of this study is to examine the effectiveness of the neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and CRP/albumin ratio (CAR) in evaluating disease severity and predicting clinical outcomes in patients diagnosed with acute cholecystitis (AC).

Methods

A total of 186 patients with AC were evaluated retrospectively. NLR, CAR, Mannheim Peritonitis Index (MPI), and P-POSSUM (Portsmouth Physiological and Operative Severity Score for the enUmeration of Mortality and Morbidity) scores were compared with AC severity grade.

Results

The rates of the grade 1 patients (group 1) and the grade 2-3 patients (group 2) were 57.5% (n = 107) and 42.5% (n = 79) according to the disease severity according to Tokyo Guidelines criteria (TG) 18/TG13, respectively. The morbidity rates determined in groups 1 and 2 were 26.7% (n = 28) and 51.9% (n = 41), respectively. No mortality was found in group 1, whereas the mortality rate in group 2 was 6.3% (n = 5). According to multivariate analysis, CAR (odds ratio [OR], 1.234; P < 0.001) and MPI (OR, 1.175; P = 0.001) were found to be associated with moderate-severe disease while CAR (OR, 1.109; P = 0.035) and P-POSSUM morbidity (OR, 1.063; P = 0.007) variables were found to be associated with the presence of morbidity.

Conclusion

We have demonstrated that CAR can be used in predicting severity of AC and that CAR is an alternative simple parameter of P-POSSUM morbidity score in prediction of morbidity in these cases. In addition to other assessment methods, these scores can provide valuable and complementary information in assessment of disease severity and prognosis in AC.

Urgent versus elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy following percutaneous transhepatic gallbladder drainage for high-risk grade II acute cholecystitis

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to evaluate the safety of urgent laparoscopic cholecystectomy (Lap-C) for grade II acute cholecystitis (AC) in high-risk patients who were defined by Tokyo Guideline 18 as having age-adjusted Charlson comorbidity index ≥6 or American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status classification (ASA-PS) ≥ 3, compared with elective Lap-C following percutaneous transhepatic gallbladder drainage (PTGBD).

METHODS

In 73 grade II AC patients who underwent Lap-C from January 2012 to March 2021, 35 were identified as high-risk; 22 underwent urgent Lap-C (urgent group) and 13 PTGBD followed by elective Lap-C (elective group). Surgical and perioperative outcomes were analyzed.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in operation time (median: 101 min vs 125 min; P = 0.371), blood loss (25 ml vs 7 ml; P = 0.853), morbidity rate (31.8% vs 38.5%; P = 0.726), or the incidence of total perioperative major complications (13.6% vs 15.4%; P = 1.000) between the two groups. The total duration of treatment was significantly shorter in the urgent group than the elective group (11 days vs 71 days; P < 0.001). Multivariate analysis revealed that blood loss ≥45 ml [odds ratio (OS): 12.14, 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.03-72.42, P = 0.006], and age ≥75 years with ASA-PS ≥ 3 (OS: 9.85, 95%CI: 1.26-77.26, P = 0.03) were the independent risk factors for total perioperative major complications.

CONCLUSION

In well-selected high-risk patients with grade II AC, urgent Lap-C can be performed with comparable safety to elective Lap-C following PTGBD.

Patient and surgeon factors contributing to bailout cholecystectomies: a single-institutional retrospective analysis

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic cholecystectomies continue to pose trouble for surgeons in the face of severe inflammation. In the advent of inability to perform an adequate dissection, a "bailout cholecystectomy" is advocated. Conversion to open or subtotal cholecystectomy is among the standard bailout procedures in such instances.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective single institution review from January 2016 to August 2019. All patients who underwent a cholecystectomy were included, while those with a concurrent operation, malignancy, planned as an open cholecystectomy, or performed by a low volume surgeon were excluded. Patient characteristics, operative reports, and outcomes were collected, as were surgeon characteristics such as years of experience, case volume, and bailout rate. Univariable and multivariable analysis were performed.

RESULTS

2458 (92.6%) underwent laparoscopic total cholecystectomy (LTC) and 196 (7.4%) underwent a bailout cholecystectomy (BOC). BOC patients tended to be older (p < 0.001), male (p < 0.001), have a longer duration of symptoms (p < 0.001), and higher ASA class (p < 0.001). They also had more signs of biliary inflammation, as evidenced by increased leukocytosis (p < 0.001), tachycardia (p < 0.001), bilirubinemia (p = 0.003), common bile duct dilation (p < 0.001), and gallbladder wall thickening (p < 0.001). The BOC cohort also had increased rates of complications, including bile leak (16%, p < 0.001), retained stone (5.1%, p = 0.005), operative time (114 min vs 79 min, p < 0.001), and secondary interventions (22.7%, p < 0.001). Male gender (aOR = 2.8, p < 0.001), preoperative diagnosis of acute cholecystitis (aOR = 2.2, p = 0.032), right upper quadrant tenderness (aOR = 3.0, p = 0.008), Asian race (aOR = 2.7, p = 0.014), and intraoperative adhesions (aOR = 13.0, p < 0.001) were found to carry independent risk for BOC. Surgeon bailout rate ≥ 7% was also found to be an independent risk factor for conversion to BOC.

CONCLUSIONS

Male gender, signs of biliary inflammation (tachycardia, leukocytosis, dilated CBD, and diagnosis of acute cholecystitis), as well as surgeon bailout rate of 7% were independent risk factors for BOC.

Association of visceral adipose tissue on the incidence and severity of acute pancreatitis: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

With the rising prevalence of obesity, there is a plethora of literature discussing the relationship between obesity and acute pancreatitis (AP). Evidence has shown a possible correlation between visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and AP incidence and severity. This systematic review explores these associations.

METHODS

Eligible articles were searched and retrieved using Medline and Embase databases. Clinical studies evaluating the impact of VAT as a risk factor for AP and the association of the severity of AP and VAT were included.

RESULTS

Eleven studies, with a total of 2529 individuals were reviewed. Nine studies showed a statistically significant association between VAT and the severity of AP. Only four studies found VAT to be a risk factor for acute pancreatitis. Two studies showed VAT to be associated with an increased risk of local complications and two studies showed a correlation between VAT and mortality.

CONCLUSION

This is the first systematic review conducted to study the association between VAT and AP. The existing body of evidence demonstrates that VAT has a clinically relevant impact and is an important prognostic indicator of the severity of AP. However, it has not shown to be an independent risk factor to the risk of developing AP. The impact of VAT on the course and outcome of AP needs to be profoundly explored to confirm these findings which may fuel earlier management and better define the prognosis of patients with AP. VAT may need to be incorporated into prognostic scores of AP to improve accuracy.

Safety of Percutaneous Cholecystostomy Early Removal: A Retrospective Cohort Study

INTRODUCTION

There are no strong recommendations regarding the management of percutaneous cholecystostomy (PC). The aim of this study was to assess the safety of early PC removal in terms of complications and recurrent disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Retrospective observational study of consecutive patients who underwent PC for acute cholecystitis from January 2012 to December 2017. We first evaluated PC-related complications and recurrent disease in patients whose drainage was removed as inpatients (IPR) or as outpatients (OPR). Patients were then divided into 2 groups according to the timing of PC removal: G1 with the PC removed within the first 7 days after its collocation and G2 with the PC removed after 7 days.

RESULTS

We included 151 patients. Patients in the OPR group had their catheters removed after 52 days (26 to 67 d) while the IPR group after 8 days (6 to 11 d); P<0.001. No difference was seen regarding complications, recurrent disease rate, or readmissions.G1 was comprised of 56 patients (37.1%), whereas G2 had 95 (62.9%). When G1 was compared with G2, no differences were seen in terms of complications. However, G1 presented a shorter duration of antibiotic treatment with 11 days (8 to 14 d) versus 15 days (12 to 23 d) in G2; P<0.001, but had a higher rate of recurrent disease 32.1% versus 14.7% in G2; P=0.014 and a higher rate of readmission 30.3% versus 13.6% in G2; P=0.019.

CONCLUSIONS

Removal of the PC during the index admission was not associated with a higher risk of complications. However, the PC removal before 7 days could be related to an increase in recurrent disease and readmissions.

Clinical characteristics of patients with newly developed acute cholecystitis after admission to the intensive care unit

INTRODUCTION

Critical care patients have many risk factors for acute cholecystitis (AC). However, less data are available regarding newly developed AC in critically ill patients.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the clinical features of AC occurring in critically ill patients after admission to an intensive care unit (ICU).

METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study from January 2006 to August 2016 at a tertiary care university hospital. We included patients diagnosed with AC with or without gallstones after ICU admission. All cases of AC were confirmed by gastroenterologists or general surgeons. We excluded patients with AC diagnosed before or at the time of ICU admission.

RESULTS

A total of 38 patients were diagnosed with AC after ICU admission between January 2006 and August 2016. Seventeen (44.7%) had acute acalculous cholecystitis, while 21 (55.3%) had acute calculous cholecystitis. The median age was 73 years (interquartile range = 63-81 years), and 22 (57.9%) patients were male. The most common reason for ICU admission was pneumonia or sepsis. The median interval from ICU admission to diagnosis of AC was 11 days (interquartile range = 4.8-22.8 days). Before AC diagnosis, almost 90% of patients used total parenteral nutrition, 68% used opioids, 76% were mechanically ventilated, and 42% received vasoactive drugs. More than half of patients underwent cholecystectomy, and all surgically resected gallbladders had pathology results for cholecystitis. Gangrenous cholecystitis was observed in five patients with acute calculous cholecystitis. The overall mortality was 42.1%, and 1/3 of these deaths were directly associated with AC. The average length of stay in the ICU and hospital was 26.5 and 44.5 days, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The development of AC in the ICU should be carefully monitored, especially in patients who have been infected and admitted to the ICU for more than 10 days. Proper diagnosis and treatment at a critical time could be lifesaving.

Advanced gallbladder inflammation is a risk factor for gallbladder perforation in patients with acute cholecystitis

Background

Acute perforated cholecystitis (APC) is probably the most severe benign gallbladder pathology with high rates of morbidity and mortality. The cause of APC has not been fully understood. We postulated that APC is a complication of advanced gallbladder inflammation. The aim of this study was to investigate the extent of gallbladder inflammation in patients with APC.

Methods

Patients with intraoperative and histopathologic diagnosis of APC were compared with cases with acute cholecystitis without perforation with respect to the extent of inflammation on histopathology as well as surgical outcomes.

Results

Fifty patients with APC were compared to 150 cases without perforation. Advanced age > 65 years and elevated CRP were confirmed on multivariate analysis as independent risk factors for APC. Advanced gallbladder inflammation was seen significantly more often in patients with APC (84.0 vs. 18.7%). Surgery lasted significantly longer 131.3 ± 55.2 min vs. 100.4 ± 47.9 min; the rates of conversion (22 vs. 4%), morbidity (24 vs. 7%), and mortality (8 vs. 1%) were significantly higher in patients with APC. ICU management following surgery was needed significantly more often in the APC group (56 vs. 15%), and the overall length of stay (11.2 ± 12.0 days vs. 5.8 ± 6.5 days) was significantly longer compared to the group without perforation.

Conclusion

Acute gallbladder perforation in patients with acute cholecystitis represents the most severe complication of cholecystitis. Acute perforated cholecystitis is a sequela of advanced gallbladder inflammation like empyematous and gangrenous cholecystitis and is associated with poor outcome compared to non-perforated cases.

The Treatment of Critically Ill Patients With Acute Cholecystitis

BACKGROUND

Besides cholecystectomy (CC), percutaneous cholecystostomy (PC) has been recommended for the management of critically ill patients with acute cholecystitis. However, solid evidence on the benefit of PC in this subgroup of patients is lacking.

METHODS

In accordance with the PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews, we systematically searched the Cochrane Library, CINAHL, MEDLINE, Embase, and Scopus for relevant studies published between 2000 and 2014. Two investigators independently screened the studies included.

RESULTS

Six studies with a total of 337 500 patients (PC 10 045, CC 327 455) were included for meta-analysis. Significant differences in favor of CC were recorded with regard to the rate of mortality (OR 4.28, [1.72 to 10.62], p = 0.0017), length of hospital stay (OR 1.41, [1.02 to 1.95], p = 0.04), and the rate of readmission for biliary complaints (OR 2.16, [1.72 to 2.73], p<0.0001). There was no statistically significant difference between both intervention arms with regard to complications (OR 0.74, [0.36 to 1.53], p = 0.42) and re-interventions (OR 7.69, [0.68 to 87.33], p = 0.10).

CONCLUSION

The benefit of percutaneous cholecystostomy (PC) over cholecystectomy (CC) in the management of critically ill patients with acute cholecystitis could not be proven in this systematic review.

Hybrid Percutaneous-Endoscopic Treatment for Acute Calculous Cholecystitis in a High-Risk Surgical Patient

Acute cholecystitis (AC) has long been treated with percutaneous cholecystostomy (PC) in patients who are poor surgical candidates, but it is associated with high recurrence rate. We report our experience with a hybrid percutaneous-endoscopic technique in an elderly patient with AC who had received a PC. In this technique, a pediatric endoscope was introduced through the PC opening to the gallbladder, and the stones were visualized, fragmented, and extracted using a retrieval basket. The patient’s AC resolved, and within 2 weeks the PC tube was removed. The patient remained asymptomatic at the 6-month and 1-year follow-up visits. We believe that if this method is replicated in large scale, it could be an effective alternative to cholecystectomy in nonsurgical candidates.

Effectiveness of Guideline-Recommended Cholecystectomy to Prevent Recurrent Pancreatitis

OBJECTIVES

Cholecystectomy during or within 4 weeks of hospitalization for acute biliary pancreatitis is recommended by guidelines. We examined adherence to the guidelines for incident mild-to-moderate acute biliary pancreatitis and the effectiveness of cholecystectomy to prevent recurrent episodes of pancreatitis.

METHODS

Individuals in the 2010-2013 MarketScan Commercial Claims & Encounters database with a hospitalization associated with International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) codes of 577.0 for acute pancreatitis and 574.x for gallstone disease were eligible. Guideline adherence was considered cholecystectomy within 30 days of the first/index hospitalization for biliary pancreatitis. Individuals with and without guideline-adherent cholecystectomy were compared for subsequent hospitalization for acute or chronic pancreatitis using a Cox proportional hazards model adjusted for age, sex, comorbidities, and length of index hospital stay.

RESULTS

Of the 17,010 patients who met the inclusion criteria, 78% were adherent with the guidelines, including 10,918 who underwent cholecystectomy during the index hospitalization and 2,387 who underwent cholecystectomy within 30 days. Among 3,705 patients non-adherent with the guidelines, 1,213 had a cholecystectomy 1-6 months after the index hospitalization. Guideline-adherent cholecystectomy resulted in fewer subsequent hospitalizations for acute and chronic pancreatitis as compared with non-adherence to the guidelines (acute pancreatitis: 3% vs. 13%, P<0.001; chronic pancreatitis: 1% vs. 4%, P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Nearly four out of five patients underwent cholecystectomy for acute biliary pancreatitis in a timeframe, consistent with guidelines. Adherence resulted in a decrease in subsequent hospitalizations for both acute and chronic pancreatitis. However, the majority of non-adherent patients did not undergo a subsequent cholecystectomy. There may be factors that predict the need for immediate vs. delayed cholecystectomy.

Evaluation of neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio as a potential biomarker for acute cholecystitis

BACKGROUND

The diagnosis of acute cholecystitis (AC) is frequently associated with an increase in white cell count (WCC) and C-reactive protein (CRP). However, one or both of these inflammatory biomarkers can be normal in AC. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the discriminative powers of the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) with WCC and CRP in diagnosing AC.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study. For more than a period of 5 y, 1959 patients were identified from the cholecystectomy Registry. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy patients with histologic evidence of AC were included if they also had preoperative WCC and CRP measurements. Eligibility criteria were met by 177 patients. These patients were compared with 45 control subjects who had normal gallbladder histology.

RESULTS

One unit of increase in the NLR was associated with a 2.5 times increase in the odds of AC (odds ratio = 2.48; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.5-4.1; P < 0.0005). NLR cutoff values of 4.1 (95% CI, 3.42-4.79), 3.25 (95% CI, 1.95-4.54), and 4.17 (95% CI, 3.76-4.58) were diagnostic for the overall AC, mild, and moderate-severe AC, respectively. The NLR areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve in AC, mild, and moderate-severe AC were 94% (95% CI, 91%-97%), 87% (95% CI, 81%-93%), and 98% (95% CI, 96%-100%), respectively. The discriminative power of an NLR was superior to that of the WCC and similar to CRP for diagnosing AC and different grades of severity.

CONCLUSIONS

NLR can be considered as a potential inflammatory biomarker for AC.

Outcome of acute perforated cholecystitis: a register study of over 5000 cases from a quality control database in Germany

BACKGROUND

Acute perforated cholecystitis (APC) is probably the most severe complication of acute cholecystitis. However, data on the outcome of cholecystectomy for APC are limited to small series. This study investigated the outcomes of cholecystectomy for APC.

METHODS

Data from a prospectively maintained quality control database in Germany were analyzed. Cases with APC were compared to cases without gallbladder perforation with regard to demographic characteristics, clinical findings and surgical outcomes.

RESULTS

A total of 5704 patients with APC were compared to 39,661 patients without perforation. Risk factors for APC included: the male gender, advanced age (>65 years), ASA score >2, elevated white blood count (WBC), positive findings on abdominal ultrasound sonography and fever. The APC group differed significantly from the control group with regard to fever (29.8 vs. 12.2 %), elevated WBC (83.8 vs. 65.4 %) and positive findings from ultrasound sonography (84.9 vs. 78.9 %), p < 0001. Preoperative computed tomography (CT) was ordered significantly more often in the APC group compared to the control group (2.3 vs. 1.0 %, p = 0.001). Surgery lasted significantly longer in the APC group (92.3 ± 40.8 vs. 73.7 ± 34.1, p < 0.001). The rates of conversion (18.9 vs. 6.8 %), bile duct injury (1.4 vs. 0.5 %), re-intervention (6.9 vs. 2.9 %) and mortality (4.3 vs. 1.3 %) were significantly higher in the APC group (p < 0.001). Similarly, the length of stay (13.4 ± 11.4 vs. 9.0 ± 8.3, p < 0.001) was significantly longer in the APC group.

CONCLUSION

Acute perforated cholecystitis is a severe complication of acute cholecystitis. Surgical dissection could be challenging with high risks of bile duct injury and conversion. The rates of morbidity and mortality are higher compared to those of patients without perforation.

Surgical management of empyematous cholecystitis: a register study of over 12,000 cases from a regional quality control database in Germany

BACKGROUND

Acute cholecystitis is a common indication for surgery. Surgical outcomes depend among other factors on the extent of gallbladder inflammation. Data on the outcomes of patients undergoing cholecystectomy due to acute empyematous cholecystitis are rare.

METHODS

Data from a prospectively maintained quality control database in Germany were analyzed. Cases with empyematous cholecystitis were compared to cases without gallbladder empyema with regard to baseline features, clinical parameters and surgical outcomes.

RESULTS

A total of 12,069 patients with empyematous cholecystitis (EC) were compared to 33,296 patients without empyema. The male gender, advanced age, ASA score >2, elevated white blood count and fever were confirmed as risk factors for EC. The EC group differed significantly from the control group with regard to fever (28.0 vs. 9.5 %), elevated WBC (82.5 vs. 62.3 %) and positive findings from ultrasound sonography (87.4 vs. 76.9 %), p < 0001. Surgery lasted significantly longer in the EC group (86.1 ± 38.5 vs. 72.2 ± 33.6, p < 0.001). The rates of conversion (15.2 vs. 5.8 %), bile duct injury (0.8 vs. 0.4 %), re-intervention (5.5 vs. 2.6 %) and mortality (2.8 vs. 1.2 %) were significantly higher in the EC group, p < 0.001. Similarly, the length of stay (11.9 ± 10.5 vs. 8.8 ± 8.3, p < 0.001) was significantly longer in the EC group.

CONCLUSION

Empyematous cholecystitis is a severe form of acute cholecystitis with high rates of morbidity and mortality. Even the experienced laparoscopic surgeon should expect dissection difficulties, therefore the threshold for conversion in order to prevent bile duct injury should be low.