Ginsenoside Rg1 alleviates repeated alcohol exposure-induced psychomotor and cognitive deficits

Neuroprotection and mechanisms of ginsenosides in nervous system diseases: Progress and perspectives

Ginsenosides are the primary component discernible from ginseng, including Rb1, Rb2, Rd, Rg1, Rg2, and compound K, and so forth. They have been shown to have multiple pharmacological activities. In recent years, more and more studies have been devoted to the neuroprotection of various ginsenosides against neurological diseases and their potential mechanisms. This paper comprehensively summarizes and reviews the neuroprotective effects of various ginsenosides on neurological diseases, especially acute and chronic neurodegenerative diseases, and their mechanisms, as well as their potential therapeutic applications to promote neuroprotection in disease prevention, treatment, and prognosis. Briefly, ginsenosides exert effective neuroprotective effects on neurological conditions, including stroke, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and brain/spinal cord injuries through a variety of molecular mechanisms, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic. Among them, some signaling pathways play important roles in related processes, such as PI3K/Akt, TLR4/NF-κB, ROS/TXNIP/NLRP3, HO-1/Nrf2, Wnt/β-catenin, and Ca2+ pathway. In conclusion, the present study reviews the research progress on the neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides in the last decade, with the aim of furnishing essential theoretical underpinning and effective references for further research and exploration of the multiple medicinal values of Chinese herbal medicines and their small molecule compounds, including ginseng and panax ginseng. Because there is less evidence in the existing clinical studies, future research should be focused on clinical trials in order to truly reflect the clinical value of various ginsenosides for the benefit of patients.

Recent trends in ginseng research

Ginseng, the dried root of Panax ginseng, contains ginsenosides and has long been used in Korea, China, and Japan to treat various symptoms. Many studies on the utility of ginseng have been conducted and in this paper we investigate recent trends in ginseng research. P. ginseng studies were collected from scientific databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and SciFindern) using the keywords "Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer", "ginsenosides", "genetic diversity", "biosynthesis", "cultivation", and "pharmacology". We identified 1208 studies up to and including September 2023: 549 studies on pharmacology, 262 studies on chemical components, 131 studies on molecular biology, 58 studies on cultivation, 71 studies on tissue culture, 28 studies on clinical trials, 123 reviews, and 49 studies in other fields. Many researchers focused on the characteristic ginseng component ginsenoside to elucidate the mechanism of ginseng's pharmacological action, the relationship between component patterns and cultivation areas and conditions, and gene expression.

Advancements in research on the effects of panax notoginseng saponin constituents in ameliorating learning and memory disorders

Learning and memory disorder is a cluster of symptoms caused by neuronal aging and other diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) are a series of saponins derived from the natural active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) that have neuroprotective effects on the central nervous system. In this paper, we review the ameliorative effects and mechanisms of Panax notoginseng saponin-like components on learning and memory disorders to provide valuable references and insights for the development of new drugs for the treatment of learning and memory disorders. Our summary results suggest that Panax ginseng saponins have significant effects on improving learning and memory disorders, and these effects and potential mechanisms are mediated by their anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, antioxidant, β-amyloid lowering, mitochondrial homeostasis in vivo, neuronal structure and function improving, neurogenesis promoting, neurotransmitter release regulating, and probiotic homeostasis in vivo activities. These findings suggest the potential of Panax notoginseng saponin-like constituents as drug candidates for improving learning and memory disorders.

ZeXieYin Formula alleviates TMAO-induced cognitive impairment by restoring synaptic plasticity damage

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Treating cognitive impairment is a challenging and necessary research topic. ZeXieYin Formula (ZXYF), is a traditional herbal formula documented in the book of HuangDiNeiJing. Our previous studies demonstrated the ameliorative effects of ZXYF on atherosclerosis by reducing the plasma trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) level. TMAO is a metabolite of gut microorganisms, our recent research found that the increasing level of TMAO may have adverse effects on cognitive functions.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Our study mainly focused on the therapeutic effects of ZXYF on TMAO-induced cognitive impairment in mice and explored its underlying mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

After the TMAO-induced cognitive impairment mice models were established, we applied behavioral tests to estimate the learning and memory ability of the ZXYF intervention mice. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was used to quantify the TMAO levels in plasma and the brain. The effects of ZXYF on the hippocampal synaptic structure and the neurons were observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Nissl staining. In addition, western-blotting (WB) and immunohistochemical (IHC) staining were used to detect the level of related proteins in the synaptic structure and further verify the changes in synaptic plasticity and the mTOR pathway after ZXYF administration.

RESULTS

Behavioral tests showed that the learning and memory ability of mice impaired after a period of TMAO intervention and ZXYF could alleviate these changes. A series of results showed that ZXYF partly restored the damage of hippocampal synapse and neurons in TMAO-induced mice, at the same time, the expression of synapse-related proteins and mTOR pathway-related proteins were significantly regulated compared with the damage caused by TMAO.

CONCLUSION

ZXYF could alleviate TMAO-induced cognitive impairment by improving synaptic function, reducing neuronal damage, regulating synapse-associated proteins, and regulating the mTOR signaling pathway.

Ginsenoside-Rg1 mitigates cardiac arrest-induced cognitive damage by modulating neuroinflammation and hippocampal plasticity

Ginsenoside-Rg1 can effectively ameliorate mental disorders, but whether ginsenoside-Rg1 plays a neuroprotective role in cardiac arrest and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CA/CPR)-induced cognitive impairment remains unclear. In this study, a 5-min asphyxia-based CA/CPR rat model was established to explore the mechanisms underlying the effects of ginsenoside-Rg1 (40 mg·kg-1·d-1, ip, 14 days) on its cognitive alterations. These CA/CPR rats displayed spatial learning and memory impairment in the Morris water maze, as reflected in the compromised basal synaptic transmission and long-term potentiation (LTP) at the Schaffer collateral of hippocampal CA1 area in vivo electrophysiology, whereas the ginsenoside-Rg1 remarkably mitigated these alterations. Next, we found that ginsenoside-Rg1 inhibited hippocampal neuroinflammation by alleviating the CA/CPR-induced hippocampal activation of microglia and astrocytes and the overexpression of related proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). In addition, ginsenoside-Rg1 improved CA/CPR-induced hippocampal neuronal apoptosis, dendritic spines and synaptic ultrastructure defects as associated with the upregulation of the key synaptic regulatory proteins. Furthermore, ginsenoside-Rg1 could ameliorate CA/CPR-induced aberrant expression of the key regulators of hippocampal glutamate signaling pathways, excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2), excitatory amino acid transporter 1 (EAAT1), Glutamine Synthetase (GS), GluN2B, and glutamate. In conclusion, ginsenoside-Rg1 exerts its neuroprotective effects by ameliorating hippocampus-dependent neuroglia activation-mediated neuroinflammation and neuroplasticity deficits, shedding new light on the therapeutic intervention of CA/CPR-related cognitive disorders.

Acne Comorbidities

Acne vulgaris is a multifactorial chronic inflammatory disorder of the pilosebaceous unit, and it represents the most common skin disease affecting about 85% of adolescents in Western populations. The prevalence of acne vulgaris in developed countries is higher than that in developing countries.Emerging data has shown some systemic diseases closely associated with acne, including obesity, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, metabolic syndrome (Mets), and so on.This review summarizes acne-associated diseases that have been reported in studies, and analyzes the possible co-pathogenesis of these diseases and acne.

A Review of the Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of the Fruit of Siraitia grosvenorii (Swingle): A Traditional Chinese Medicinal Food

Siraitia grosvenorii (Swingle) C. Jeffrey ex Lu et Z. Y. Zhang is a unique economic and medicinal plant of Cucurbitaceae in Southern China. For hundreds of years, Chinese people have used the fruit of S. grosvenorii as an excellent natural sweetener and traditional medicine for lung congestion, sore throat, and constipation. It is one of the first species in China to be classified as a medicinal food homology, which has received considerable attention as a natural product with high development potential. Various natural products, such as triterpenoids, flavonoids, amino acids, and lignans, have been released from this plant by previous phytochemical studies. Phar- macological research of the fruits of S. grosvenorii has attracted extensive attention, and an increasing number of extracts and compounds have been demonstrated to have antitussive, expectorant, antiasthmatic, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, immunologic, hepatoprotective, antibacte- rial, and other activities. In this review, based on a large number of previous studies, we summarized the related research progress of the chemical components and pharmacological effects of S. grosvenorii, which provides theoretical support for further investigation of its biological functions and potential clinical applications.

Ginsenoside and Its Therapeutic Potential for Cognitive Impairment

Cognitive impairment (CI) is one of the major clinical features of many neurodegenerative diseases. It can be aging-related or even appear in non-central nerve system (CNS) diseases. CI has a wide spectrum that ranges from the cognitive complaint with normal screening tests to mild CI and, at its end, dementia. Ginsenosides, agents extracted from a key Chinese herbal medicine (ginseng), show great promise as a new therapeutic option for treating CI. This review covered both clinical trials and preclinical studies to summarize the possible mechanisms of how ginsenosides affect CI in different diseases. It shows that ginsenosides can modulate signaling pathways associated with oxidative stress, apoptosis, inflammation, synaptic plasticity, and neurogenesis. The involved signaling pathways mainly include the PI3K/Akt, CREB/BDNF, Keap1/Nrf2 signaling, and NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome pathways. We hope to provide a theoretical basis for the treatment of CI for related diseases by ginsenosides.

Ginsenosides in central nervous system diseases: Pharmacological actions, mechanisms, and therapeutics

The nervous system is one of the most complex physiological systems, and central nervous system diseases (CNSDs) are serious diseases that affect human health. Ginseng (Panax L.), the root of Panax species, are famous Chinese herbs that have been used for various diseases in China, Japan, and Korea since ancient times, and remain a popular natural medicine used worldwide in modern times. Ginsenosides are the main active components of ginseng, and increasing evidence has demonstrated that ginsenosides can prevent CNSDs, including neurodegenerative diseases, memory and cognitive impairment, cerebral ischemia injury, depression, brain glioma, multiple sclerosis, which has been confirmed in numerous studies. Therefore, this review summarizes the potential pathways by which ginsenosides affect the pathogenesis of CNSDs mainly including antioxidant effects, anti-inflammatory effects, anti-apoptotic effects, and nerve protection, which provides novel ideas for the treatment of CNSDs.

Ginsenoside Rg1 Prevents Cognitive Impairment and Hippocampal Neuronal Apoptosis in Experimental Vascular Dementia Mice by Promoting GPR30 Expression

This study is aimed at investigating the potential roles of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER, also known as GPR30) in the preventive effect of ginsenoside Rg1 against cognitive impairment and hippocampal cell apoptosis in experimental vascular dementia (VD) in mice. The effects of bilateral common carotid artery stenosis (BCAS) on GPR30 expression at mRNA level were evaluated. Thereafter, the BCAS mouse model was utilized to evaluate the protection of Rg1 (0.1, 1, 10 mg/kg, 14 days, ip). Spatial memory was evaluated by water Morris Maze 7 days post BCAS. After behavioral tests, neuronal apoptosis was detected by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling assay, and potential mechanisms were determined using western blotting and quantitative real-time PCR. Our results showed that GPR30 expression in the hippocampal region at mRNA level was promoted 30 min, 3 h, 6 h, and 24 h following BCAS. Ginsenoside Rg1 (1 or 10 mg/kg, 14 days, ip) promoted GPR30 expression in the hippocampus of model mice (after behavioral tests) but did not alter GPR30 expression in the hippocampus of control mice. Moreover, treatment of ginsenoside Rg1 (10 mg/kg) or G1 (5 μg/kg), a GPR30 agonist, prevented BCAS-induced memory impairment and hippocampal neuronal loss and apoptosis and promoted the ratio of Bcl-2 to Bax expression in the hippocampus (after behavioral tests). On the contrary, G15 (185 μg/kg), an antagonist of GPR30, aggravated BCAS-induced hippocampal neuronal loss and apoptosis. Finally, drug-target molecular docking pointed that Rg1 had a lower binding energy with GPR30 compared with Bax and Bcl-2. Together, our data implicate that ginsenoside Rg1 prevents cognitive impairment and hippocampal neuronal apoptosis in VD mice, likely through promoting GPR30 expression. These results would provide important implications for the application of Rg1 in the treatment of VD.

Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer as a potential therapeutic agent for organ fibrosis disease

Background

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer), a representative Chinese herbal medicine, can improve the body’s antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity. Recently, scientists have shifted emphasis towards the initial stages of different malignant diseases—corresponding organ fibrosis and explored the essential role of P. ginseng in the treatment of fibrotic diseases.

Main body

In the first instance, the review generalizes the molecular mechanisms and common therapeutic methods of fibrosis. Next, due to the convenience and safety of individual medication, the research progress of ginseng extract and formulas in treating liver fibrosis, pulmonary fibrosis, myocardial fibrosis, and renal fibrosis has been systematically summarized. Finally, we describe active ingredients isolated from P. ginseng for their outstanding anti-fibrotic properties and further reveal the potential therapeutic prospect and limitations of P. ginseng in fibrotic diseases.

Conclusions

P. ginseng can be regarded as a valuable herbal medicine against fibrous tissue proliferation. Ginseng extract, derived formulas and monomers can inhibit the abundant deposition of extracellular matrix which caused by repeated damage and provide protection for fibrotic organs. Although the molecular mechanisms such as transforming growth factor β signal transduction have been confirmed, future studies should still focus on exploring the underlying mechanisms of P. ginseng in treating fibrotic disease including the therapeutic targets of synergistic action of multiple components in P. ginseng. Moreover, it is also necessary to carry out clinical trial to evaluate the feasibility of P. ginseng in combination with common fibrosis drugs.