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Yuan L, Xie S, Bai H, Liu X, Cai P, Lu J, Wang C, Lin Z, Li S, Guo Y, Cai S. Reconstruction of dynamic mammary mini gland in vitro for normal physiology and oncogenesis. Nat Methods 2023; 20:2021-2033. [PMID: 37919421 DOI: 10.1038/s41592-023-02039-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Organoid culture has been extensively exploited for normal tissue reconstruction and disease modeling. However, it is still challenging to establish organoids that mimic in vivo-like architecture, size and function under homeostatic conditions. Here we describe the development of a long-term adult stem cell-derived mammary mini gland culture system that supports robust three-dimensional outgrowths recapitulating the morphology, scale, cellular context and transcriptional heterogeneity of the normal mammary gland. The self-organization ability of stem cells and the stability of the outgrowths were determined by a coordinated combination of extracellular matrix, environmental signals and dynamic physiological cycles. We show that these mini glands were hormone responsive and could recapitulate the entire postnatal mammary development including puberty, estrus cycle, lactation and involution. We also observed that these mini glands maintained the presence of mammary stem cells and could also recapitulate the fate transition from embryonic bipotency to postnatal unipotency in lineage tracing assays. In addition, upon induction of oncogene expression in the mini glands, we observed tumor initiation in vitro and in vivo in a mouse model. Together, this study provides an experimental system that can support a dynamic miniature mammary gland for the study of physiologically relevant, complex biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Yuan
- Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Growth Regulation and Translational Research of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shaofang Xie
- Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Huiru Bai
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Growth Regulation and Translational Research of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoqin Liu
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Growth Regulation and Translational Research of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Pei Cai
- Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Growth Regulation and Translational Research of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jing Lu
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chunhui Wang
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Growth Regulation and Translational Research of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Westlake Disease Modeling Lab, Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zuobao Lin
- Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Growth Regulation and Translational Research of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shuying Li
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Growth Regulation and Translational Research of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Westlake Disease Modeling Lab, Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yajing Guo
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Growth Regulation and Translational Research of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shang Cai
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China.
- Key Laboratory of Growth Regulation and Translational Research of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China.
- Westlake Disease Modeling Lab, Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, China.
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Dong X, Lin X, Hou Q, Hu Z, Wang Y, Wang Z. Effect of Maternal Gradient Nutritional Restriction during Pregnancy on Mammary Gland Development in Offspring. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13050946. [PMID: 36899802 PMCID: PMC10000074 DOI: 10.3390/ani13050946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
We aimed to investigate the effect of different levels of nutritional restriction on mammary gland development during the embryonic period by gradient nutritional restriction in pregnant female mice. We started the nutritional restriction of 60 female CD-1(ICR) mice from day 9 of gestation based on 100%, 90%, 80%, 70% and 60% of ad libitum intake. After delivery, the weight and body fat of the offspring and the mother were recorded (n = 12). Offspring mammary development and gene expression were explored by whole mount and qPCR. Mammary development patterns of in offspring were constructed using Sholl analysis, principal component analysis (PCA) and regression analysis. We found that: (1) Mild maternal nutritional restriction (90-70% of ad libitum intake) did not affect offspring weight, while body fat percentage was more sensitive to nutritional restriction (lower at 80% ad libitum feeding). (2) A precipitous drop in mammary development and altered developmental patterns occurred when nutritional restriction ranged from 80% to 70% of ad libitum intake. (3) Mild maternal nutritional restriction (90% of ad libitum intake) promoted mammary-development-related gene expression. In conclusion, our results suggest that mild maternal nutritional restriction during gestation contributes to increased embryonic mammary gland development. When maternal nutritional restriction reaches 70% of ad libitum intake, the mammary glands of the offspring show noticeable maldevelopment. Our results help provide a theoretical basis for the effect of maternal nutritional restriction during gestation on offspring mammary development and a reference for the amount of maternal nutritional restriction.
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Lee MY. Embryonic Programs in Cancer and Metastasis—Insights From the Mammary Gland. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:938625. [PMID: 35846378 PMCID: PMC9277484 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.938625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer is characterized as a reversion of a differentiated cell to a primitive cell state that recapitulates, in many aspects, features of embryonic cells. This review explores the current knowledge of developmental mechanisms that are essential for embryonic mouse mammary gland development, with a particular focus on genes and signaling pathway components that are essential for the induction, morphogenesis, and lineage specification of the mammary gland. The roles of these same genes and signaling pathways in mammary gland or breast tumorigenesis and metastasis are then summarized. Strikingly, key embryonic developmental pathways are often reactivated or dysregulated during tumorigenesis and metastasis in processes such as aberrant proliferation, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and stem cell potency which affects cellular lineage hierarchy. These observations are in line with findings from recent studies using lineage tracing as well as bulk- and single-cell transcriptomics that have uncovered features of embryonic cells in cancer and metastasis through the identification of cell types, cell states and characterisation of their dynamic changes. Given the many overlapping features and similarities of the molecular signatures of normal development and cancer, embryonic molecular signatures could be useful prognostic markers for cancer. In this way, the study of embryonic development will continue to complement the understanding of the mechanisms of cancer and aid in the discovery of novel therapeutic targets and strategies.
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Pincha N, Marangoni P, Haque A, Klein OD. Parallels in signaling between development and regeneration in ectodermal organs. Curr Top Dev Biol 2022; 149:373-419. [PMID: 35606061 PMCID: PMC10049776 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2022.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Ectodermal organs originate from the outermost germ layer of the developing embryo and include the skin, hair, tooth, nails, and exocrine glands. These organs develop through tightly regulated, sequential and reciprocal epithelial-mesenchymal crosstalk, and they eventually assume various morphologies and functions while retaining the ability to regenerate. As with many other tissues in the body, the development and morphogenesis of these organs are regulated by a set of common signaling pathways, such as Shh, Wnt, Bmp, Notch, Tgf-β, and Eda. However, subtle differences in the temporal activation, the multiple possible combinations of ligand-receptor activation, the various cofactors, as well as the underlying epigenetic modulation determine how each organ develops into its adult form. Although each organ has been studied separately in considerable detail, the mechanisms underlying the parallels and differences in signaling that regulate their development have rarely been investigated. First, we will use the tooth, the hair follicle, and the mammary gland as representative ectodermal organs to explore how the development of signaling centers and establishment of stem cell populations influence overall growth and morphogenesis. Then we will compare how some of the major signaling pathways (Shh, Wnt, Notch and Yap/Taz) differentially regulate developmental events. Finally, we will discuss how signaling regulates regenerative processes in all three.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Pincha
- Program in Craniofacial Biology and Department of Orofacial Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Pauline Marangoni
- Program in Craniofacial Biology and Department of Orofacial Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Ameera Haque
- Program in Craniofacial Biology and Department of Orofacial Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Ophir D Klein
- Program in Craniofacial Biology and Department of Orofacial Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States; Department of Pediatrics and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States.
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5
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Watson CJ. How should we define mammary stem cells? Trends Cell Biol 2021; 31:621-627. [PMID: 33902986 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2021.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Mammary stem cells (MaSCs) have been defined by cell surface marker expression and their ability to repopulate a cleared fat pad, a capacity now known to result from reprogramming upon transplantation. Furthermore, lineage-tracing studies have provoked controversy as to whether MaSCs are unipotent or bi/multipotent. Various innovative experimental approaches, including single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-Seq), epigenetic analyses, deep tissue and live imaging, and advanced mouse models, have provided new and unexpected insights into stem and progenitor cells; thus, it is now timely to reappraise our concept of the MaSC hierarchy. Here, I highlight misconceptions, suggest definitions of stem and progenitor cells, and propose a way forward in our search for an understanding of MaSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine J Watson
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK.
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Gan L, Liu Y, Cui DX, Pan Y, Wan M. New insight into dental epithelial stem cells: Identification, regulation, and function in tooth homeostasis and repair. World J Stem Cells 2020; 12:1327-1340. [PMID: 33312401 PMCID: PMC7705464 DOI: 10.4252/wjsc.v12.i11.1327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Tooth enamel, a highly mineralized tissue covering the outermost area of teeth, is always damaged by dental caries or trauma. Tooth enamel rarely repairs or renews itself, due to the loss of ameloblasts and dental epithelial stem cells (DESCs) once the tooth erupts. Unlike human teeth, mouse incisors grow continuously due to the presence of DESCs that generate enamel-producing ameloblasts and other supporting dental epithelial lineages. The ready accessibility of mouse DESCs and wide availability of related transgenic mouse lines make mouse incisors an excellent model to examine the identity and heterogeneity of dental epithelial stem/progenitor cells; explore the regulatory mechanisms underlying enamel formation; and help answer the open question regarding the therapeutic development of enamel engineering. In the present review, we update the current understanding about the identification of DESCs in mouse incisors and summarize the regulatory mechanisms of enamel formation driven by DESCs. The roles of DESCs during homeostasis and repair are also discussed, which should improve our knowledge regarding enamel tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Gan
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department of Pediatric Dentistry, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Ying Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department of Pediatric Dentistry, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Di-Xin Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department of Pediatric Dentistry, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Yue Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department of Pediatric Dentistry, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Mian Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department of Cariology and Endodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China
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7
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Watson CJ, Khaled WT. Mammary development in the embryo and adult: new insights into the journey of morphogenesis and commitment. Development 2020; 147:dev169862. [PMID: 33191272 DOI: 10.1242/dev.169862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The mammary gland is a unique tissue and the defining feature of the class Mammalia. It is a late-evolving epidermal appendage that has the primary function of providing nutrition for the young, although recent studies have highlighted additional benefits of milk including the provision of passive immunity and a microbiome and, in humans, the psychosocial benefits of breastfeeding. In this Review, we outline the various stages of mammary gland development in the mouse, with a particular focus on lineage specification and the new insights that have been gained by the application of recent technological advances in imaging in both real-time and three-dimensions, and in single cell RNA sequencing. These studies have revealed the complexity of subpopulations of cells that contribute to the mammary stem and progenitor cell hierarchy and we suggest a new terminology to distinguish these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine J Watson
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Walid T Khaled
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
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8
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Chamberlin T, Thompson V, Hillers-Ziemer LE, Walton BN, Arendt LM. Obesity reduces mammary epithelial cell TGFβ1 activity through macrophage-mediated extracellular matrix remodeling. FASEB J 2020; 34:8611-8624. [PMID: 32359100 PMCID: PMC7317547 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202000228rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Obesity is a risk factor for breast cancer in postmenopausal and high‐risk premenopausal women. Changes within the obese breast microenvironment may increase breast cancer risk. Transforming growth factor beta‐1 (TGFβ1) is a major regulator of mammary epithelial stem/progenitor cells, and its activity is dysregulated under conditions of obesity. Using a high‐fat diet model of obesity in mice and breast tissue from women, we observed that TGFβ1 activity is reduced in breast epithelial cells in obesity. Breast ducts and lobules demonstrated increased decorin in the extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounding epithelial cells, and we observed that decorin and latent TGFβ1 complexed together. Under conditions of obesity, macrophages expressed higher levels of decorin and were significantly increased in number surrounding breast epithelial cells. To investigate the relationship between macrophages and decorin expression, we treated obese mice with either IgG control or anti‐F4/80 antibodies to deplete macrophages. Mice treated with anti‐F4/80 antibodies demonstrated reduced decorin surrounding mammary ducts and enhanced TGFβ1 activity within mammary epithelial cells. Given the role of TGFβ1 as a tumor suppressor, reduced epithelial TGFβ1 activity and enhanced TGFβ1 within the ECM of obese mammary tissue may enhance breast cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Chamberlin
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Victoria Thompson
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Lauren E Hillers-Ziemer
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Brenna N Walton
- Program in Molecular and Environmental Toxicology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Lisa M Arendt
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Program in Molecular and Environmental Toxicology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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9
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Fu NY, Nolan E, Lindeman GJ, Visvader JE. Stem Cells and the Differentiation Hierarchy in Mammary Gland Development. Physiol Rev 2019; 100:489-523. [PMID: 31539305 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00040.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland is a highly dynamic organ that undergoes profound changes within its epithelium during puberty and the reproductive cycle. These changes are fueled by dedicated stem and progenitor cells. Both short- and long-lived lineage-restricted progenitors have been identified in adult tissue as well as a small pool of multipotent mammary stem cells (MaSCs), reflecting intrinsic complexity within the epithelial hierarchy. While unipotent progenitor cells predominantly execute day-to-day homeostasis and postnatal morphogenesis during puberty and pregnancy, multipotent MaSCs have been implicated in coordinating alveologenesis and long-term ductal maintenance. Nonetheless, the multipotency of stem cells in the adult remains controversial. The advent of large-scale single-cell molecular profiling has revealed striking changes in the gene expression landscape through ontogeny and the presence of transient intermediate populations. An increasing number of lineage cell-fate determination factors and potential niche regulators have now been mapped along the hierarchy, with many implicated in breast carcinogenesis. The emerging diversity among stem and progenitor populations of the mammary epithelium is likely to underpin the heterogeneity that characterizes breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nai Yang Fu
- Cancer and Stem Cell Biology Program, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore; Tumour-Host Interaction Laboratory, Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom; Cancer Biology and Stem Cells Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Royal Melbourne Hospital and Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; and Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Emma Nolan
- Cancer and Stem Cell Biology Program, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore; Tumour-Host Interaction Laboratory, Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom; Cancer Biology and Stem Cells Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Royal Melbourne Hospital and Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; and Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Geoffrey J Lindeman
- Cancer and Stem Cell Biology Program, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore; Tumour-Host Interaction Laboratory, Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom; Cancer Biology and Stem Cells Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Royal Melbourne Hospital and Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; and Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jane E Visvader
- Cancer and Stem Cell Biology Program, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore; Tumour-Host Interaction Laboratory, Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom; Cancer Biology and Stem Cells Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Royal Melbourne Hospital and Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; and Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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10
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Jeong J, Kim W, Hens J, Dann P, Schedin P, Friedman PA, Wysolmerski JJ. NHERF1 Is Required for Localization of PMCA2 and Suppression of Early Involution in the Female Lactating Mammary Gland. Endocrinology 2019; 160:1797-1810. [PMID: 31087002 PMCID: PMC6619491 DOI: 10.1210/en.2019-00230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Prior studies have demonstrated that the calcium pump, plasma membrane calcium ATPase 2 (PMCA2), mediates calcium transport into milk and prevents mammary epithelial cell death during lactation. PMCA2 also regulates cell proliferation and cell death in breast cancer cells, in part by maintaining the receptor tyrosine kinase ErbB2/HER2 within specialized plasma membrane domains. Furthermore, the regulation of PMCA2 membrane localization and activity in breast cancer cells requires its interaction with the PDZ domain-containing scaffolding molecule sodium-hydrogen exchanger regulatory factor (NHERF) 1. In this study, we asked whether NHERF1 also interacts with PMCA2 in normal mammary epithelial cells during lactation. Our results demonstrate that NHERF1 expression is upregulated during lactation and that it interacts with PMCA2 at the apical membrane of secretory luminal epithelial cells. Similar to PMCA2, NHERF1 expression is rapidly reduced by milk stasis after weaning. Examining lactating NHERF1 knockout (KO) mice showed that NHERF1 contributes to the proper apical location of PMCA2, for proper apical-basal polarity in luminal epithelial cells, and that it participates in the suppression of Stat3 activation and the prevention of premature mammary gland involution. Additionally, we found that PMCA2 also interacts with the closely related scaffolding molecule, NHERF2, at the apical membrane, which likely maintains PMCA2 at the plasma membrane of mammary epithelial cells in lactating NHERF1KO mice. Based on these data, we conclude that, during lactation, NHERF1 is required for the proper expression and apical localization of PMCA2, which, in turn, contributes to preventing the premature activation of Stat3 and the lysosome-mediated cell death pathway that usually occur only early in mammary involution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaekwang Jeong
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Wonnam Kim
- Division of Pharmacology, College of Korean Medicine, Semyung University, Jecheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Julie Hens
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Pamela Dann
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Pepper Schedin
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Peter A Friedman
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - John J Wysolmerski
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
- Correspondence: John J. Wysolmerski, MD, Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, TAC S123a, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, FMT 102, Box 208020, New Haven, Connecticut 06520. E-mail:
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11
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Florian S, Iwamoto Y, Coughlin M, Weissleder R, Mitchison TJ. A human organoid system that self-organizes to recapitulate growth and differentiation of a benign mammary tumor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:11444-11453. [PMID: 31101720 PMCID: PMC6561274 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1702372116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
As 3D culture has become central to investigation of tissue biology, mammary epithelial organoids have emerged as powerful tools for investigation of epithelial cell polarization and carcinogenesis. However, most current protocols start from single cells suspended in Matrigel, which can also restrict cell differentiation and behavior. Here, we show that the noncancerous mammary cell line HMT-3522 S1, when allowed to spontaneously form cell aggregates ("spheroids") in medium without Matrigel, switches to a collective growth mode that recapitulates many attributes of "usual ductal hyperplasia" (UDH), a common benign mammary lesion. Interestingly, these spheroids undergo a complex maturation process reminiscent of embryonic development: solid-cell cords form their own basement membrane, grow on the surface of initially homogeneous cell aggregates, and form asymmetric lumina lined by two distinct cell types that express basal and luminal cytokeratins. This sequence of events provides a cellular mechanism that explains how the characteristic crescent-shaped, asymmetrical lumina form in UDH. Our results suggest that HMT-3522 S1 spheroids are useful as an in vitro model system to study UDH biology, glandular lumen formation, and stem cell biology of the mammary gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Florian
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115;
- Institute of Pathology, Charité University Hospital, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Yoshiko Iwamoto
- Center for Systems Biology, Richard B. Simches Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114
| | - Margaret Coughlin
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Ralph Weissleder
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
- Center for Systems Biology, Richard B. Simches Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114
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12
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Lee E, Piranlioglu R, Wicha MS, Korkaya H. Plasticity and Potency of Mammary Stem Cell Subsets During Mammary Gland Development. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20092357. [PMID: 31085991 PMCID: PMC6539898 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20092357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 05/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
It is now widely believed that mammary epithelial cell plasticity, an important physiological process during the stages of mammary gland development, is exploited by the malignant cells for their successful disease progression. Normal mammary epithelial cells are heterogeneous and organized in hierarchical fashion, in which the mammary stem cells (MaSC) lie at the apex with regenerative capacity as well as plasticity. Despite the fact that the majority of studies supported the existence of multipotent MaSCs giving rise to both basal and luminal lineages, others proposed lineage restricted unipotent MaSCs. Consistent with the notion, the latest research has suggested that although normal MaSC subsets mainly stay in a quiescent state, they differ in their reconstituting ability, spatial localization, and molecular and epigenetic signatures in response to physiological stimuli within the respective microenvironment during the stages of mammary gland development. In this review, we will focus on current research on the biology of normal mammary stem cells with an emphasis on properties of cellular plasticity, self-renewal and quiescence, as well as the role of the microenvironment in regulating these processes. This will include a discussion of normal breast stem cell heterogeneity, stem cell markers, and lineage tracing studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunmi Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA.
| | - Raziye Piranlioglu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA.
| | - Max S Wicha
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Hasan Korkaya
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA.
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13
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French R, Tornillo G. Heterogeneity of Mammary Stem Cells. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1169:119-140. [PMID: 31487022 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-24108-7_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Adult female mammals are endowed with the unique ability to produce milk for nourishing their newborn offspring. Milk is secreted on demand by the mammary gland, an organ which develops during puberty, further matures during pregnancy and lactation, but reverts to a resting state after weaning. The glandular tissue (re)generated through this series of structural and functional changes is finely sourced by resident stem cells under the control of systemic hormones and local stimuli.Over the past decades a plethora of studies have been carried out in order to identify and characterize mammary stem cells, primarily in mice and humans. Intriguingly, it is now emerging that multiple mammary stem cell pools (co)exist and are characterized by distinctive molecular markers and context-dependent functions.This chapter reviews the heterogeneity of the mammary stem cell compartment with emphasis on the key properties and molecular regulators of distinct stem cell populations in both the mouse and human glands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhiannon French
- European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute, School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Giusy Tornillo
- European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute, School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.
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14
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Patel Y, Soni M, Awgulewitsch A, Kern MJ, Liu S, Shah N, Singh UP, Chen H. Overexpression of miR-489 derails mammary hierarchy structure and inhibits HER2/neu-induced tumorigenesis. Oncogene 2019; 38:445-453. [PMID: 30104710 PMCID: PMC6338493 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-018-0439-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Revised: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Although it has been demonstrated that transformed progenitor cell population can contribute to tumor initiation, factors contributing to this malignant transformation are poorly known. Using in vitro and xenograft-based models, previous studies demonstrated that miR-489 acts as a tumor suppressor miRNA by targeting various oncogenic pathways. It has been demonstrated that miR-489 directly targets HER2 and inhibits the HER2 signaling pathway; however, its role in mammary gland development and HER2-induced tumor initiation hasn't been studied. To dissect the role of miR-489, we sorted different populations of mammary epithelial cells and determined that miR-489 was highly expressed in mammary stem cells. MMTV-miR-489 mice that overexpressed miR-489 in mammary epithelial cells were developed and these mice exhibited an inhibition of mammary gland development in early ages with a specific impact on highly proliferative cells. Double transgenic MMTV-Her2-miR489 mice were then generated to observe how miR-489 overexpression affects HER2-induced tumorigenesis. miR-489 overexpression delayed HER2-induced tumor initiation significantly. Moreover, miR-489 overexpression inhibited tumor growth and lung metastasis. miR-489 overexpression reduced mammary progenitor cell population significantly in preneoplastic mammary glands of MMTV-Her2 mice which showed a putative transformed population in HER2-induced tumorigenesis. The miR-489 overexpression reduced CD49fhiCD61hi populations in tumors that have stem-like properties, and miR-489 overexpression altered the HER2 signaling pathway in mammary tumors. Altogether, these data indicate that the inhibition of HER2-induced tumorigenesis by miR-489 overexpression was due to altering progenitor cell populations while decreasing tumor growth and metastasis via influencing tumor promoting genes DEK and SHP2.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, CD/analysis
- Cell Differentiation
- Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/genetics
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Epithelial Cells/metabolism
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Lung Neoplasms/secondary
- Mammary Glands, Animal/cytology
- Mammary Glands, Animal/growth & development
- Mammary Glands, Animal/metabolism
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/genetics
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/metabolism
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/pathology
- Mammary Tumor Virus, Mouse/genetics
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- MicroRNAs/biosynthesis
- MicroRNAs/genetics
- MicroRNAs/physiology
- Neoplastic Stem Cells/cytology
- Neoplastic Stem Cells/metabolism
- Oncogene Proteins/genetics
- Oncogene Proteins/metabolism
- Poly-ADP-Ribose Binding Proteins/genetics
- Poly-ADP-Ribose Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Pregnancy
- Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase, Non-Receptor Type 11/genetics
- Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase, Non-Receptor Type 11/metabolism
- RNA, Neoplasm/biosynthesis
- RNA, Neoplasm/genetics
- RNA, Neoplasm/physiology
- Receptor, ErbB-2/genetics
- Receptor, ErbB-2/physiology
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/biosynthesis
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism
- Stem Cells/metabolism
- Tumor Stem Cell Assay
- Up-Regulation
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Patel
- Department of Biological Science, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
- Center for Colon Cancer Research, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - M Soni
- Department of Biological Science, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
- Center for Colon Cancer Research, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - A Awgulewitsch
- Department of Medicine and Department of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Biology, Transgenic and Genome Editing Core, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - M J Kern
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Biology, Director, Gene Function Core, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - S Liu
- Department of Biological Science, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
- Center for Colon Cancer Research, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - N Shah
- Department of Biological Science, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
- Center for Colon Cancer Research, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - U P Singh
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - H Chen
- Department of Biological Science, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA.
- Center for Colon Cancer Research, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA.
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15
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Sox9 regulates cell state and activity of embryonic mouse mammary progenitor cells. Commun Biol 2018; 1:228. [PMID: 30564749 PMCID: PMC6292906 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-018-0215-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Embryonic mammary cells are a unique population comprised of undifferentiated, highly plastic progenitor cells that create normal mammary tissues. The mammary gland continues to develop after birth from descendants of embryonic mammary cells. Here, we establish cell lines from mouse mammary organs, immediately after they formed during prenatal development, to facilitate studies of primitive mammary cells, which are difficult to isolate in sufficient quantities for use in functional experiments. We show that some lines can be induced to secrete milk, a distinguishing feature of mammary epithelial cells. Targeted deletion of Sox9, from one clone, decreases the ability to respond to lactogenic stimuli, consistent with a previously identified role for Sox9 in regulating luminal progenitor function. Sox9 ablation also leads to alterations in 3D morphology and downregulation of Zeb1, a key epithelial–mesenchymal transition regulator. Prenatal mammary cell lines are an invaluable resource to study regulation of mammary progenitor cell biology and development. Naoko Kogata et al. generated murine mammary progenitor cell lines that form spheres and secrete milk upon hormonal stimulation. Deletion of Sox9 increased the ability of these cells to forms spheres but decreased milk production induced by lactogenic stimuli, consistent with the role of this transcription factor on maintaining the stem cell state.
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16
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Lloyd-Lewis B, Davis FM, Harris OB, Hitchcock JR, Watson CJ. Neutral lineage tracing of proliferative embryonic and adult mammary stem/progenitor cells. Development 2018; 145:145/14/dev164079. [PMID: 30045917 PMCID: PMC6078330 DOI: 10.1242/dev.164079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Mammary gland development occurs over multiple phases, beginning in the mammalian embryo and continuing throughout reproductive life. The remarkable morphogenetic capacity of the mammary gland at each stage of development is attributed to the activities of distinct populations of mammary stem cells (MaSCs) and progenitor cells. However, the relationship between embryonic and adult MaSCs, and their fate during different waves of mammary gland morphogenesis, remains unclear. By employing a neutral, low-density genetic labelling strategy, we characterised the contribution of proliferative stem/progenitor cells to embryonic, pubertal and reproductive mammary gland development. Our findings further support a model of lineage restriction of MaSCs in the postnatal mammary gland, and highlight extensive redundancy and heterogeneity within the adult stem/progenitor cell pool. Furthermore, our data suggest extensive multiplicity in their foetal precursors that give rise to the primordial mammary epithelium before birth. In addition, using a single-cell labelling approach, we revealed the extraordinary capacity of a single embryonic MaSC to contribute to postnatal ductal development. Together, these findings provide tantalising new insights into the disparate and stage-specific contribution of distinct stem/progenitor cells to mammary gland development. Summary: Neutral, low-density lineage tracing of proliferative mammary stem and progenitor cells during embryonic, pubertal and reproductive mammary gland development reveal the disparate and stage-specific contribution of distinct stem/progenitor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Felicity M Davis
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Olivia B Harris
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK.,Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QR, UK
| | | | - Christine J Watson
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK .,Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QR, UK
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17
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Lilja AM, Rodilla V, Huyghe M, Hannezo E, Landragin C, Renaud O, Leroy O, Rulands S, Simons BD, Fre S. Clonal analysis of Notch1-expressing cells reveals the existence of unipotent stem cells that retain long-term plasticity in the embryonic mammary gland. Nat Cell Biol 2018; 20:677-687. [PMID: 29784917 DOI: 10.1038/s41556-018-0108-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2017] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Recent lineage tracing studies have revealed that mammary gland homeostasis relies on unipotent stem cells. However, whether and when lineage restriction occurs during embryonic mammary development, and which signals orchestrate cell fate specification, remain unknown. Using a combination of in vivo clonal analysis with whole mount immunofluorescence and mathematical modelling of clonal dynamics, we found that embryonic multipotent mammary cells become lineage-restricted surprisingly early in development, with evidence for unipotency as early as E12.5 and no statistically discernable bipotency after E15.5. To gain insights into the mechanisms governing the switch from multipotency to unipotency, we used gain-of-function Notch1 mice and demonstrated that Notch activation cell autonomously dictates luminal cell fate specification to both embryonic and basally committed mammary cells. These functional studies have important implications for understanding the signals underlying cell plasticity and serve to clarify how reactivation of embryonic programs in adult cells can lead to cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M Lilja
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM, CNRS, Paris, France.,Sorbonne University, UPMC University of Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - Veronica Rodilla
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM, CNRS, Paris, France. .,Sorbonne University, UPMC University of Paris VI, Paris, France. .,Preclinical Research Program; Vall d'Hebron Institute of Oncology (VHIO), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Mathilde Huyghe
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM, CNRS, Paris, France.,Sorbonne University, UPMC University of Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - Edouard Hannezo
- Cavendish Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,The Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,The Wellcome Trust/Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Camille Landragin
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM, CNRS, Paris, France.,Sorbonne University, UPMC University of Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Renaud
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM, CNRS, Paris, France.,Sorbonne University, UPMC University of Paris VI, Paris, France.,Cell and Tissue Imaging Facility (PICT-IBiSA), Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Leroy
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM, CNRS, Paris, France.,Sorbonne University, UPMC University of Paris VI, Paris, France.,Cell and Tissue Imaging Facility (PICT-IBiSA), Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - Steffen Rulands
- Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems, Dresden, Germany.,Center for Systems Biology Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Benjamin D Simons
- Cavendish Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,The Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,The Wellcome Trust/Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Silvia Fre
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM, CNRS, Paris, France. .,Sorbonne University, UPMC University of Paris VI, Paris, France.
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18
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Hughes K, Watson CJ. Sinus-like dilatations of the mammary milk ducts, Ki67 expression, and CD3-positive T lymphocyte infiltration, in the mammary gland of wild European rabbits during pregnancy and lactation. J Anat 2018; 233:266-273. [PMID: 29736914 PMCID: PMC6036928 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Sinus-like dilatations of the mammary duct are recognisable in the mammary gland of pregnant and lactating wild European rabbits. These dilatations exhibit a bilaminar epithelial lining, with luminal epithelial cells expressing basal and lateral E-cadherin. Occasional binucleated mammary epithelial cells are present in the luminal layer. Underlying the luminal epithelial cells is a basal layer of cytokeratin 14-positive cells, supported by a thin layer of fibrous tissue. Multi-segmental epithelial proliferation, as indicated by Ki67 expression, is apparent in the luminal epithelial cells, suggesting a capacity for division during pregnancy and lactation. CD3-positive T lymphocytes are present both intraepithelially, suggesting exocytosis, and in foci subjacent to the ductular epithelium. We consider that sinus-like dilatations of the mammary duct may have the potential to give rise to a subset of the mammary gland neoplasms classified as ductal in origin. Milk accumulation in these sinus-like dilatations is likely to provide a niche for bacterial replication in cases of mastitis in rabbits. These structures are an important component of the innate immune system of the mammary gland, both as a physical barrier and as an interface between the milk and mammary immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Hughes
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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19
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Conditional knockout of N-Myc and STAT interactor disrupts normal mammary development and enhances metastatic ability of mammary tumors. Oncogene 2018; 37:1610-1623. [PMID: 29326438 PMCID: PMC5921859 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-017-0037-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The process of organ development requires a delicate balance between cellular plasticity and differentiation. This balance is disrupted in cancer initiation and progression. N-Myc and STAT interactor (NMI: human or Nmi: murine) has emerged as a relevant player in the etiology of breast cancer. However, a fundamental understanding of its relevance to normal mammary biology is lacking. To gain insight into its normal function in mammary gland, we generated a mammary-specific Nmi knockout mouse model. We observed that Nmi protein expression is induced in mammary epithelium at the onset of pregnancy, in luminal cells and persists throughout lactation. Nmi knockout results in a precocious alveolar phenotype. These alveoli exhibit an extensive presence of nuclear β-catenin and enhanced Wnt/β-catenin signaling. The Nmi knockout pubertal ductal tree shows enhanced invasion of the mammary fatpad and increased terminal end bud numbers. Tumors from Nmi null mammary epithelium show a significant enrichment of poorly differentiated cells with elevated stem/progenitor markers, active Wnt/β-catenin signaling, highly invasive morphology as well as, increased number of distant metastases. Our study demonstrates that Nmi has a distinct role in the differentiation process of mammary luminal epithelial cell compartment and developmental aberrations resulting from Nmi absence contribute to metastasis and demonstrates that aberration in normal developmental program can lead to metastatic disease, highlighting the contribution and importance of luminal progenitor cells in driving metastatic disease.
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20
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Pal B, Chen Y, Vaillant F, Jamieson P, Gordon L, Rios AC, Wilcox S, Fu N, Liu KH, Jackling FC, Davis MJ, Lindeman GJ, Smyth GK, Visvader JE. Construction of developmental lineage relationships in the mouse mammary gland by single-cell RNA profiling. Nat Commun 2017; 8:1627. [PMID: 29158510 PMCID: PMC5696379 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01560-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammary epithelium comprises two primary cellular lineages, but the degree of heterogeneity within these compartments and their lineage relationships during development remain an open question. Here we report single-cell RNA profiling of mouse mammary epithelial cells spanning four developmental stages in the post-natal gland. Notably, the epithelium undergoes a large-scale shift in gene expression from a relatively homogeneous basal-like program in pre-puberty to distinct lineage-restricted programs in puberty. Interrogation of single-cell transcriptomes reveals different levels of diversity within the luminal and basal compartments, and identifies an early progenitor subset marked by CD55. Moreover, we uncover a luminal transit population and a rare mixed-lineage cluster amongst basal cells in the adult mammary gland. Together these findings point to a developmental hierarchy in which a basal-like gene expression program prevails in the early post-natal gland prior to the specification of distinct lineage signatures, and the presence of cellular intermediates that may serve as transit or lineage-primed cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhupinder Pal
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Yunshun Chen
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.,Bioinformatics Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - François Vaillant
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Paul Jamieson
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Lavinia Gordon
- Australian Genome Research Facility, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Anne C Rios
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Stephen Wilcox
- Systems Biology & Personalised Medicine Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Naiyang Fu
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Kevin He Liu
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Felicity C Jackling
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Melissa J Davis
- Bioinformatics Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Geoffrey J Lindeman
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.,Parkville Familial Cancer Centre and Department of Medical Oncology, The Royal Melbourne Hospital and Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Parkville, VIC, 3050, Australia
| | - Gordon K Smyth
- Bioinformatics Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,School of Mathematics and Statistics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Jane E Visvader
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia. .,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.
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21
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Yeo SK, Guan JL. Breast Cancer: Multiple Subtypes within a Tumor? Trends Cancer 2017; 3:753-760. [PMID: 29120751 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease, and stratification of tumors is paramount to achieve better clinical outcomes. While it is common to stratify and treat breast tumors as a single entity, insights from studies on intratumoral heterogeneity and cancer stem cells raise the possibility that multiple breast cancer subtypes may coexist within a tumor. A role for plasticity in driving dynamic conversions between breast cancer subtypes is proposed, and the clinical implications include a need for combinatorial therapeutic strategies that account for the discrete disease entities and their plasticity. Accordingly, the advent of single-cell technologies will be crucial in enabling the diagnosis and stratification of distinct disease subtypes down to the cellular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syn Kok Yeo
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Jun-Lin Guan
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA.
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22
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Mammary Stem Cells: Premise, Properties, and Perspectives. Trends Cell Biol 2017; 27:556-567. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2017.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Revised: 04/01/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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23
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Michalak EM. The mammary stem cell field wakes up to hibernating cells. Stem Cell Investig 2017; 4:45. [PMID: 28607919 DOI: 10.21037/sci.2017.04.08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ewa M Michalak
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.,Cancer Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
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24
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Trejo CL, Luna G, Dravis C, Spike BT, Wahl GM. Lgr5 is a marker for fetal mammary stem cells, but is not essential for stem cell activity or tumorigenesis. NPJ Breast Cancer 2017. [PMID: 28649656 PMCID: PMC5460261 DOI: 10.1038/s41523-017-0018-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The search for the bipotent mammary stem cells that drive mammary development requires markers to enable their prospective isolation. There is general agreement that bipotent mouse mammary stem cells are abundant in late fetal development, but their existence in the adult is vigorously debated. Among markers useful for mammary stem cell identification, the Wnt co-receptor Lgr5 has been suggested by some to be both "necessary and sufficient" for bipotency and transplantation of adult mammary stem cell activity, though other studies disagree. Importantly, the relevance of Lgr5 to the bipotency of fetal mammary stem cells has not been studied. We show here that expression of a fluorescent protein driven by the endogenous Lgr5 promoter enables significant fetal mammary stem cell enrichment. We used lineage tracing to demonstrate embryonic cells expressing Lgr5 are bipotent, while their adult counterparts are myoepithelial restricted. Importantly, our data conclusively demonstrate that Lgr5 is dispensable for both fetal and adult mammary stem cell activity and for the development of mammary tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christy L Trejo
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, Gene Expression Laboratory, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA
| | - Gidsela Luna
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, Gene Expression Laboratory, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA
| | - Christopher Dravis
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, Gene Expression Laboratory, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA
| | - Benjamin T Spike
- Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, 84103 UT USA
| | - Geoffrey M Wahl
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, Gene Expression Laboratory, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA
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25
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Fu NY, Rios AC, Pal B, Law CW, Jamieson P, Liu R, Vaillant F, Jackling F, Liu KH, Smyth GK, Lindeman GJ, Ritchie M, Visvader JE. Identification of quiescent and spatially restricted mammary stem cells that are hormone responsive. Nat Cell Biol 2017; 19:164-176. [DOI: 10.1038/ncb3471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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26
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Blaas L, Pucci F, Messal HA, Andersson AB, Ruiz EJ, Gerling M, Douagi I, Spencer-Dene B, Musch A, Mitter R, Bhaw L, Stone R, Bornhorst D, Sesay AK, Jonkers J, Stamp G, Malanchi I, Toftgård R, Behrens A. Lgr6 labels a rare population of mammary gland progenitor cells that are able to originate luminal mammary tumours. Nat Cell Biol 2016; 18:1346-1356. [PMID: 27798604 PMCID: PMC5812439 DOI: 10.1038/ncb3434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The mammary gland is composed of a complex cellular hierarchy with unusual postnatal plasticity. The identities of stem/progenitor cell populations, as well as tumour-initiating cells that give rise to breast cancer, are incompletely understood. Here we show that Lgr6 marks rare populations of cells in both basal and luminal mammary gland compartments in mice. Lineage tracing analysis showed that Lgr6+ cells are unipotent progenitors, which expand clonally during puberty but diminish in adulthood. In pregnancy or following stimulation with ovarian hormones, adult Lgr6+ cells regained proliferative potency and their progeny formed alveoli over repeated pregnancies. Oncogenic mutations in Lgr6+ cells resulted in expansion of luminal cells, culminating in mammary gland tumours. Conversely, depletion of Lgr6+ cells in the MMTV-PyMT model of mammary tumorigenesis significantly impaired tumour growth. Thus, Lgr6 marks mammary gland progenitor cells that can initiate tumours, and cells of luminal breast tumours required for efficient tumour maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leander Blaas
- Center for Innovative Medicine (CIMED), Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, 141 83 Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Fabio Pucci
- Adult Stem Cell Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT,UK
| | - Hendrik A. Messal
- Adult Stem Cell Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT,UK
| | - Agneta B. Andersson
- Center for Innovative Medicine (CIMED), Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, 141 83 Huddinge, Sweden
| | - E. Josue Ruiz
- Adult Stem Cell Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT,UK
| | - Marco Gerling
- Center for Innovative Medicine (CIMED), Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, 141 83 Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Iyadh Douagi
- Department of Medicine, Center for Hematology and Regenerative Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, 141 83 Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Bradley Spencer-Dene
- Experimental Histopathology, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT,UK
| | - Alexandra Musch
- Center for Innovative Medicine (CIMED), Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, 141 83 Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Richard Mitter
- Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT,UK
| | - Leena Bhaw
- Advanced Sequencing Facility, The Francis Crick Institute, Mill Hill Laboratory, The Ridgeway, London NW7 1AA, UK
| | - Richard Stone
- Experimental Histopathology, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT,UK
| | - Dorothee Bornhorst
- Center for Innovative Medicine (CIMED), Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, 141 83 Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Abdul K. Sesay
- Advanced Sequencing Facility, The Francis Crick Institute, Mill Hill Laboratory, The Ridgeway, London NW7 1AA, UK
| | - Jos Jonkers
- Division of Molecular Pathology and Cancer, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gordon Stamp
- Experimental Histopathology, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT,UK
| | - Ilaria Malanchi
- Tumour-Stroma Interactions in Cancer Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT,UK
| | - Rune Toftgård
- Center for Innovative Medicine (CIMED), Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, 141 83 Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Axel Behrens
- Adult Stem Cell Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT,UK
- Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, Guy's Campus, London SE1 1UL, UK
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27
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Davis FM, Lloyd-Lewis B, Harris OB, Kozar S, Winton DJ, Muresan L, Watson CJ. Single-cell lineage tracing in the mammary gland reveals stochastic clonal dispersion of stem/progenitor cell progeny. Nat Commun 2016; 7:13053. [PMID: 27779190 PMCID: PMC5093309 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland undergoes cycles of growth and regeneration throughout reproductive life, a process that requires mammary stem cells (MaSCs). Whilst recent genetic fate-mapping studies using lineage-specific promoters have provided valuable insights into the mammary epithelial hierarchy, the true differentiation potential of adult MaSCs remains unclear. To address this, herein we utilize a stochastic genetic-labelling strategy to indelibly mark a single cell and its progeny in situ, combined with tissue clearing and 3D imaging. Using this approach, clones arising from a single parent cell could be visualized in their entirety. We reveal that clonal progeny contribute exclusively to either luminal or basal lineages and are distributed sporadically to branching ducts or alveoli. Quantitative analyses suggest that pools of unipotent stem/progenitor cells contribute to adult mammary gland development. Our results highlight the utility of tracing a single cell and reveal that progeny of a single proliferative MaSC/progenitor are dispersed throughout the epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felicity M. Davis
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
- School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | | | - Olivia B. Harris
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
- WellcomeTrust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QR, UK
| | - Sarah Kozar
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Douglas J. Winton
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Leila Muresan
- Cambridge Advanced Imaging Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Christine J. Watson
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
- WellcomeTrust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QR, UK
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28
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Abstract
Recent work in the field of stem cell biology suggests that there is no single design for an adult tissue stem cell hierarchy, and that different tissues employ distinct strategies to meet their self-renewal and repair requirements. Stem cells may be multipotent or unipotent, and can exist in quiescent or actively dividing states. 'Professional' stem cells may also co-exist with facultative stem cells, which are more specialized daughter cells that revert to a stem cell state under specific tissue damage conditions. Here, we discuss stem cell strategies as seen in three solid mammalian tissues: the intestine, mammary gland and skeletal muscle.
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29
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Ferrari N, Riggio AI, Mason S, McDonald L, King A, Higgins T, Rosewell I, Neil JC, Smalley MJ, Sansom OJ, Morris J, Cameron ER, Blyth K. Runx2 contributes to the regenerative potential of the mammary epithelium. Sci Rep 2015; 5:15658. [PMID: 26489514 PMCID: PMC4614940 DOI: 10.1038/srep15658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although best known for its role in bone development and associated structures the transcription factor RUNX2 is expressed in a wide range of lineages, including those of the mammary gland. Previous studies have indicated that Runx2 can regulate aspects of mammary cell function and influence the properties of cancer cells. In this study we investigate the role of Runx2 in the mammary stem/progenitor population and its relationship with WNT signalling. Results show that RUNX2 protein is differentially expressed throughout embryonic and adult development of the murine mammary gland with high levels of expression in mammary stem-cell enriched cultures. Importantly, functional analysis reveals a role for Runx2 in mammary stem/progenitor cell function in in vitro and in vivo regenerative assays. Furthermore, RUNX2 appears to be associated with WNT signalling in the mammary epithelium and is specifically upregulated in mouse models of WNT-driven breast cancer. Overall our studies reveal a novel function for Runx2 in regulating mammary epithelial cell regenerative potential, possibly acting as a downstream target of WNT signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Ferrari
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow, G61 1BD
| | - Alessandra I. Riggio
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow, G61 1BD
| | - Susan Mason
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow, G61 1BD
| | - Laura McDonald
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow, G61 1BD
| | - Ayala King
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow, G61 1BD
| | - Theresa Higgins
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London, WC2A 3LY
| | - Ian Rosewell
- Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Hertfordshire, EN6 3LD
| | - James C. Neil
- University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, G61 1QH
| | - Matthew J. Smalley
- European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF24 4HQ
| | - Owen J. Sansom
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow, G61 1BD
| | - Joanna Morris
- University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, G61 1QH
| | - Ewan R. Cameron
- University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, G61 1QH
| | - Karen Blyth
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Bearsden, Glasgow, G61 1BD
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30
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Arendt LM, Kuperwasser C. Form and function: how estrogen and progesterone regulate the mammary epithelial hierarchy. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2015; 20:9-25. [PMID: 26188694 PMCID: PMC4596764 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-015-9337-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland undergoes dramatic post-natal growth beginning at puberty, followed by full development occurring during pregnancy and lactation. Following lactation, the alveoli undergo apoptosis, and the mammary gland reverses back to resemble the nonparous gland. This process of growth and regression occurs for multiple pregnancies, suggesting the presence of a hierarchy of stem and progenitor cells that are able to regenerate specialized populations of mammary epithelial cells. Expansion of epithelial cell populations in the mammary gland is regulated by ovarian steroids, in particular estrogen acting through its receptor estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and progesterone signaling through progesterone receptor (PR). A diverse number of stem and progenitor cells have been identified based on expression of cell surface markers and functional assays. Here we review the current understanding of how estrogen and progesterone act together and separately to regulate stem and progenitor cells within the human and mouse mammary tissues. Better understanding of the hierarchal organization of epithelial cell populations in the mammary gland and how the hormonal milieu affects its regulation may provide important insights into the origins of different subtypes of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M Arendt
- Developmental, Molecular, and Chemical Biology Department, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Ave, Boston, MA, 02111, USA
- Molecular Oncology Research Institute, Tufts Medical Center, 800 Washington St, Boston, MA, 02111, USA
- Raymond and Beverly Sackler Laboratory for the Convergence of Biomedical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Boston, MA, 02111, USA
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2015 Linden Dr, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Charlotte Kuperwasser
- Developmental, Molecular, and Chemical Biology Department, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Ave, Boston, MA, 02111, USA.
- Molecular Oncology Research Institute, Tufts Medical Center, 800 Washington St, Boston, MA, 02111, USA.
- Raymond and Beverly Sackler Laboratory for the Convergence of Biomedical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Boston, MA, 02111, USA.
- Developmental, Molecular, and Chemical Biology Department, Tufts University School of Medicine, 800 Washington St, Box 5609, Boston, MA, 02111, USA.
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