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Li H, Deng L, Weng L, Li J, Hu W, Yu J, Xiao Y, Xiao G. Cell wall-localized Bt protein endows rice high resistance to Lepidoptera pests. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2024; 80:1728-1739. [PMID: 38009289 DOI: 10.1002/ps.7901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The commercialized Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) crops accumulate Bt protein within cells, but the intracellular interactions of foreign protein with endogenous protein inevitably result in large or small unintended effects. In this study, the Bt gene Cry1Ca was linked with the sequences of extracellular secretion signal peptide and carbohydrate binding module 11 to constitute a fusion gene SP-Cry1Ca-CBM11, and the fusion gene driven by constitutive promoters was used for secreting and anchoring onto the cell wall to minimize unintended effects. RESULTS The transient expression in tobacco leaves demonstrated that the fusion protein was anchored on cell walls. The Cry1Ca contents of five homozygous rice transformants of single-copy insertion were different and descended in the order leaf > root > stem. The maximum content of Cry1Ca was 17.55 μg g-1 in leaves of transformant 21H037. The bioassay results revealed that the transformants exhibited high resistance to lepidopteran pests. The corrected mortality of pink stem borer (Sesamia inferens) and striped stem borer (Chilo suppressalis) ranged from 96.33% to 100%, and from 83.32% to 100%, respectively, and the corrected mortality of rice leaf roller (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) was 92.53%. Besides, the agronomic traits of the five transformants were normal and similar to that of the recipient, and the transformants were highly resistant to glyphosate at the germination and seedling stages. CONCLUSION The fusion Bt protein was accumulated on cell walls and endowed the rice with high resistance to lepidopteran pests without unintended effects in agronomic traits. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Li
- Key Laboratory of Agro-ecological Processes in Subtropical Region, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lihua Deng
- Key Laboratory of Agro-ecological Processes in Subtropical Region, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha, China
| | - Lvshui Weng
- Key Laboratory of Agro-ecological Processes in Subtropical Region, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha, China
| | - Jinjiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Agro-ecological Processes in Subtropical Region, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha, China
| | - Wenbin Hu
- Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha, China
| | - Jianghui Yu
- Key Laboratory of Agro-ecological Processes in Subtropical Region, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha, China
| | - Youlun Xiao
- Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha, China
| | - Guoying Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Agro-ecological Processes in Subtropical Region, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha, China
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Lin CY, Donohoe BS, Bomble YJ, Yang H, Yunes M, Sarai NS, Shollenberger T, Decker SR, Chen X, McCann MC, Tucker MP, Wei H, Himmel ME. Iron incorporation both intra- and extra-cellularly improves the yield and saccharification of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) biomass. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2021; 14:55. [PMID: 33663584 PMCID: PMC7931346 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-021-01891-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pretreatments are commonly used to facilitate the deconstruction of lignocellulosic biomass to its component sugars and aromatics. Previously, we showed that iron ions can be used as co-catalysts to reduce the severity of dilute acid pretreatment of biomass. Transgenic iron-accumulating Arabidopsis and rice plants exhibited higher iron content in grains, increased biomass yield, and importantly, enhanced sugar release from the biomass. RESULTS In this study, we used intracellular ferritin (FerIN) alone and in combination with an improved version of cell wall-bound carbohydrate-binding module fused iron-binding peptide (IBPex) specifically targeting switchgrass, a bioenergy crop species. The FerIN switchgrass improved by 15% in height and 65% in yield, whereas the FerIN/IBPex transgenics showed enhancement up to 30% in height and 115% in yield. The FerIN and FerIN/IBPex switchgrass had 27% and 51% higher in planta iron accumulation than the empty vector (EV) control, respectively, under normal growth conditions. Improved pretreatability was observed in FerIN switchgrass (~ 14% more glucose release than the EV), and the FerIN/IBPex plants showed further enhancement in glucose release up to 24%. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that this iron-accumulating strategy can be transferred from model plants and applied to bioenergy crops, such as switchgrass. The intra- and extra-cellular iron incorporation approach improves biomass pretreatability and digestibility, providing upgraded feedstocks for the production of biofuels and bioproducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Yuan Lin
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
- Present Address: Joint BioEnergy Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Emeryville, CA 94608 USA
- Present Address: Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | - Bryon S. Donohoe
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
| | - Yannick J. Bomble
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
| | - Haibing Yang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
- Present Address: South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510650 China
| | - Manal Yunes
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
- Present Address: Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309 USA
| | - Nicholas S. Sarai
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
- Present Address: Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering 210-41, California Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125 USA
| | - Todd Shollenberger
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
| | - Stephen R. Decker
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
| | - Xiaowen Chen
- National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
| | - Maureen C. McCann
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
| | - Melvin P. Tucker
- National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
| | - Hui Wei
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
| | - Michael E. Himmel
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
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Carpita NC, McCann MC. Redesigning plant cell walls for the biomass-based bioeconomy. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:15144-15157. [PMID: 32868456 PMCID: PMC7606688 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.rev120.014561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 08/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Lignocellulosic biomass-the lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose that comprise major components of the plant cell well-is a sustainable resource that could be utilized in the United States to displace oil consumption from heavy vehicles, planes, and marine-going vessels and commodity chemicals. Biomass-derived sugars can also be supplied for microbial fermentative processing to fuels and chemicals or chemically deoxygenated to hydrocarbons. However, the economic value of biomass might be amplified by diversifying the range of target products that are synthesized in living plants. Genetic engineering of lignocellulosic biomass has previously focused on changing lignin content or composition to overcome recalcitrance, the intrinsic resistance of cell walls to deconstruction. New capabilities to remove lignin catalytically without denaturing the carbohydrate moiety have enabled the concept of the "lignin-first" biorefinery that includes high-value aromatic products. The structural complexity of plant cell-wall components also provides substrates for polymeric and functionalized target products, such as thermosets, thermoplastics, composites, cellulose nanocrystals, and nanofibers. With recent advances in the design of synthetic pathways, lignocellulosic biomass can be regarded as a substrate at various length scales for liquid hydrocarbon fuels, chemicals, and materials. In this review, we describe the architectures of plant cell walls and recent progress in overcoming recalcitrance and illustrate the potential for natural or engineered biomass to be used in the emerging bioeconomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C Carpita
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Maureen C McCann
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA; Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA.
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Jakes JE, Zelinka SL, Hunt CG, Ciesielski P, Frihart CR, Yelle D, Passarini L, Gleber SC, Vine D, Vogt S. Measurement of moisture-dependent ion diffusion constants in wood cell wall layers using time-lapse micro X-ray fluorescence microscopy. Sci Rep 2020; 10:9919. [PMID: 32555373 PMCID: PMC7303177 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-66916-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Our future bioeconomy depends on increased utilization of renewable lignocellulosic biomass. Controlling the diffusion of chemicals, such as inorganic ions, within secondary plant cell walls is central to many biomass applications. However, insufficient understanding of intra-cell-wall diffusion within secondary plant cell walls is hindering the advancement of many lignocellulosic biomass applications. In this work, X-ray fluorescence microscopy was used to measure diffusion constants of K+, Cu2+, and Cl− diffusing through loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) cell wall layers under 70%, 75%, or 80% relative humidity (RH). Results revealed that diffusion constants increased with RH, the larger Cu2+ diffused more slowly than the K+, and the Cl− diffusion constant was the same as that for the counter cation, indicating cations and anions diffused together to maintain charge neutrality. Comparison with electrical conductivity measurements showed that conductivity is being controlled by ion mobility over these RH. The results further support that intra-cell-wall diffusion of inorganic ions is a Fickian diffusion process occurring through rubbery amorphous polysaccharides, which contradicts previous assertions that intra-cell-wall diffusion is an aqueous process occurring through water pathways. Researchers can now utilize polymer science approaches to engineer the molecular architecture of lignocellulosic biomass to optimize properties for specific end uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E Jakes
- Forest Biopolymers Science and Engineering, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA.
| | - Samuel L Zelinka
- Building and Fire Sciences, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Christopher G Hunt
- Forest Biopolymers Science and Engineering, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Peter Ciesielski
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver W Pkwy, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Charles R Frihart
- Forest Biopolymers Science and Engineering, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Daniel Yelle
- Forest Biopolymers Science and Engineering, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Leandro Passarini
- Building and Fire Sciences, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Sophie-Charlotte Gleber
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, IL, 60439, USA
| | - David Vine
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, IL, 60439, USA
| | - Stefan Vogt
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, IL, 60439, USA
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Torres AF, Xu X, Nikiforidis CV, Bitter JH, Trindade LM. Exploring the Treasure of Plant Molecules With Integrated Biorefineries. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:478. [PMID: 31040858 PMCID: PMC6476976 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Despite significant progress toward the commercialization of biobased products, today's biorefineries are far from achieving their intended goal of total biomass valorization and effective product diversification. The problem is conceptual. Modern biorefineries were built around well-optimized, cost-effective chemical synthesis routes, like those used in petroleum refineries for the synthesis of fuels, plastics, and solvents. However, these were designed for the conversion of fossil resources and are far from optimal for the processing of biomass, which has unique chemical characteristics. Accordingly, existing biomass commodities were never intended for modern biorefineries as they were bred to meet the needs of conventional agriculture. In this perspective paper, we propose a new path toward the design of efficient biorefineries, which capitalizes on a cross-disciplinary synergy between plant, physical, and catalysis science. In our view, the best opportunity to advance profitable and sustainable biorefineries requires the parallel development of novel feedstocks, conversion protocols and synthesis routes specifically tailored for total biomass valorization. Above all, we believe that plant biologists and process technologists can jointly explore the natural diversity of plants to synchronously develop both, biobased crops with designer chemistries and compatible conversion protocols that enable maximal biomass valorization with minimum input utilization. By building biorefineries from the bottom-up (i.e., starting with the crop), the envisioned partnership promises to develop cost-effective, biomass-dedicated routes which can be effectively scaled-up to deliver profitable and resource-use efficient biorefineries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andres F. Torres
- Plant Breeding, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
- Biobased Chemistry and Technology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
- Graduate School Experimental Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
- Colegio de Ciencias Biológicas y Ambientales, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Xuan Xu
- Plant Breeding, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | | | - Johannes H. Bitter
- Biobased Chemistry and Technology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Luisa M. Trindade
- Plant Breeding, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
- Graduate School Experimental Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
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Besser K, Malyon GP, Eborall WS, Paro da Cunha G, Filgueiras JG, Dowle A, Cruz Garcia L, Page SJ, Dupree R, Kern M, Gomez LD, Li Y, Elias L, Sabbadin F, Mohamad SE, Pesante G, Steele-King C, Ribeiro de Azevedo E, Polikarpov I, Dupree P, Cragg SM, Bruce NC, McQueen-Mason SJ. Hemocyanin facilitates lignocellulose digestion by wood-boring marine crustaceans. Nat Commun 2018; 9:5125. [PMID: 30510200 PMCID: PMC6277391 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-07575-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Woody (lignocellulosic) plant biomass is an abundant renewable feedstock, rich in polysaccharides that are bound into an insoluble fiber composite with lignin. Marine crustacean woodborers of the genus Limnoria are among the few animals that can survive on a diet of this recalcitrant material without relying on gut resident microbiota. Analysis of fecal pellets revealed that Limnoria targets hexose-containing polysaccharides (mainly cellulose, and also glucomannans), corresponding with the abundance of cellulases in their digestive system, but xylans and lignin are largely unconsumed. We show that the limnoriid respiratory protein, hemocyanin, is abundant in the hindgut where wood is digested, that incubation of wood with hemocyanin markedly enhances its digestibility by cellulases, and that it modifies lignin. We propose that this activity of hemocyanins is instrumental to the ability of Limnoria to feed on wood in the absence of gut symbionts. These findings may hold potential for innovations in lignocellulose biorefining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Besser
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Graham P Malyon
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, PO1 2DY, United Kingdom
| | - William S Eborall
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Giovanni Paro da Cunha
- Institute of Physics of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, 13566-590 São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Jefferson G Filgueiras
- Institute of Physics of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, 13566-590 São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Adam Dowle
- Bioscience Technology Facility, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Lourdes Cruz Garcia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, PO1 2DY, United Kingdom
| | - Samuel J Page
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Ray Dupree
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Marcelo Kern
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Leonardo D Gomez
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Yi Li
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Luisa Elias
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Federico Sabbadin
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Shaza E Mohamad
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom.,Malaysia Japan International Institute of Technology, University of Technology, Malaysia, 54100, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Giovanna Pesante
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Clare Steele-King
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | | | - Igor Polikarpov
- Institute of Physics of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, 13566-590 São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Paul Dupree
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, United Kingdom
| | - Simon M Cragg
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, PO1 2DY, United Kingdom
| | - Neil C Bruce
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom.
| | - Simon J McQueen-Mason
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, United Kingdom.
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Kinetic Modelling and Experimental Studies for the Effects of Fe2+ Ions on Xylan Hydrolysis with Dilute-Acid Pretreatment and Subsequent Enzymatic Hydrolysis. Catalysts 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/catal8010039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Lin CY, Donohoe BS, Ahuja N, Garrity DM, Qu R, Tucker MP, Himmel ME, Wei H. Evaluation of parameters affecting switchgrass tissue culture: toward a consolidated procedure for Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum). PLANT METHODS 2017; 13:113. [PMID: 29270209 PMCID: PMC5735814 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-017-0263-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), a robust perennial C4-type grass, has been evaluated and designated as a model bioenergy crop by the U.S. DOE and USDA. Conventional breeding of switchgrass biomass is difficult because it displays self-incompatible hindrance. Therefore, direct genetic modifications of switchgrass have been considered the more effective approach to tailor switchgrass with traits of interest. Successful transformations have demonstrated increased biomass yields, reduction in the recalcitrance of cell walls and enhanced saccharification efficiency. Several tissue culture protocols have been previously described to produce transgenic switchgrass lines using different nutrient-based media, co-cultivation approaches, and antibiotic strengths for selection. RESULTS After evaluating the published protocols, we consolidated these approaches and optimized the process to develop a more efficient protocol for producing transgenic switchgrass. First, seed sterilization was optimized, which led to a 20% increase in yield of induced calluses. Second, we have selected a N6 macronutrient/B5 micronutrient (NB)-based medium for callus induction from mature seeds of the Alamo cultivar, and chose a Murashige and Skoog-based medium to regenerate both Type I and Type II calluses. Third, Agrobacterium-mediated transformation was adopted that resulted in 50-100% positive regenerated transformants after three rounds (2 weeks/round) of selection with antibiotic. Genomic DNA PCR, RT-PCR, Southern blot, visualization of the red fluorescent protein and histochemical β-glucuronidase (GUS) staining were conducted to confirm the positive switchgrass transformants. The optimized methods developed here provide an improved strategy to promote the production and selection of callus and generation of transgenic switchgrass lines. CONCLUSION The process for switchgrass transformation has been evaluated and consolidated to devise an improved approach for transgenic switchgrass production. With the optimization of seed sterilization, callus induction, and regeneration steps, a reliable and effective protocol is established to facilitate switchgrass engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Yuan Lin
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
| | - Bryon S. Donohoe
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
| | - Neha Ahuja
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
| | - Deborah M. Garrity
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
| | - Rongda Qu
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7287 USA
| | - Melvin P. Tucker
- National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO USA
| | - Michael E. Himmel
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
| | - Hui Wei
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA
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