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Wu Y, Chen X, Liao Q, Xiao N, Li Y, Huang Z, Xie S. Development of binderless fiberboard from poplar wood residue with Trametes hirsuta. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 362:142638. [PMID: 38897320 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
The utilization of agricultural and forestry residues for the development and preparation of green binderless fiberboard (BF) is an effective way to realize high-value utilization of lignocellulose biomass resources. This study focuses on the fabrication of BF with excellent mechanical and waterproof properties, utilizing poplar wood residue (PWR) as raw material and Trametes hirsuta as a pretreatment method. During the fermentation process, lignin-degrading enzymes and biological factors, such as sugars, were produced by T. hirsuta, which activated lignin by depolymerizing lignin bonds and modifying structural functional groups, and forming new covalent bonds between poplar fibers, ultimately enhancing adhesion. Additionally, the activated lignin molecules and sugar molecules coalesce under high temperatures and pressures, forming a dense carbonization layer that bolsters the mechanical properties of the fiberboard and effectively shields it from rapid water infiltration. The bio-pretreated BF for 10 days shows a MOR and MOE of up to 36.1 Mpa and 3704.3 Mpa, respectively, which is 261% and 247.8% higher than that of the bio-untreated fiberboard, and the water swelling ratio (WSR) rate is only 5.6%. Chemical composition analysis revealed that repolymerization occurred among lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose, especially the molecular weight of lignin changed significantly, with the Mw of lignin increasing from 312066 g/mol to 892362 g/mol, and then decreasing to 825021 g/mol. Mn increased from 277790 g/mol to 316987.5 g/mol and then decreased to 283299.5 g/mol at 21 days. Compared to other artificial fiberboards prepared through microbial pretreatment, the BF prepared by microorganisms in this study exhibited the highest mechanical properties among the poplar wood biobased panels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanling Wu
- National Key Laboratory of Non-Food Biomass Energy Technology, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Advanced Microwave Manufacturing Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, 530007, PR China.
| | - Xianrui Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Non-Food Biomass Energy Technology, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Advanced Microwave Manufacturing Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, 530007, PR China; Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, PR China.
| | - Qingzhao Liao
- National Key Laboratory of Non-Food Biomass Energy Technology, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Advanced Microwave Manufacturing Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, 530007, PR China.
| | - Ning Xiao
- National Key Laboratory of Non-Food Biomass Energy Technology, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Advanced Microwave Manufacturing Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, 530007, PR China.
| | - Yanming Li
- National Key Laboratory of Non-Food Biomass Energy Technology, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Advanced Microwave Manufacturing Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, 530007, PR China.
| | - Zhimin Huang
- National Key Laboratory of Non-Food Biomass Energy Technology, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Advanced Microwave Manufacturing Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, 530007, PR China.
| | - Shangxian Xie
- National Key Laboratory of Non-Food Biomass Energy Technology, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Advanced Microwave Manufacturing Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, 530007, PR China; Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, PR China.
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Conversion of Carbohydrates in Lignocellulosic Biomass after Chemical Pretreatment. ENERGIES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/en15010254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the study was to determine the quantitative and qualitative changes taking place in biomass components actively participating in methane fermentation, i.e., in carbohydrates, as a result of chemical pretreatment. Analyses were conducted on agricultural waste (corn stover, also called corn straw, and corncobs) as materials most commonly used in methane fermentation, as well as poplar wood, a material relatively rarely used in biogas production. Pretreatment with the aim of increasing efficiency of methane fermentation was carried out with the use of acid and alkaline solutions of different concentrations. The effect of pretreatment on carbohydrates was analyzed based on the quantitative and qualitative changes in this component. Due to the structural heterogeneity of carbohydrates, their varied reactivity and fermentability were determined in terms of holocellulose, cellulose, and pentosans. The chemical structure of cellulose was also analyzed. It is shown in this study that chemical pretreatment causes transformations of carbohydrate components, which differ quantitatively and qualitatively in the compared raw materials. It was found that the alkaline treatment caused smaller changes in the percentage shares of the carbohydrate biomass components as compared to the acid treatment. Moreover, it was observed that the compared materials differ in terms of quantitative changes in their chemical composition depending on the composition of the raw material prior to pretreatment. In the case of corn waste subjected to the action of 1 and 3% NaOH, the share of pentosans in the biomass increased. It was established that this is a change with a positive effect on fermentation efficiency. The action of acids and alkalis on the biomass led to similar structural changes in cellulose, which are adverse for the fermentation process.
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Jiang X, Zhai R, Jin M. Increased mixing intensity is not necessary for more efficient cellulose hydrolysis at high solid loading. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 329:124911. [PMID: 33667991 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.124911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
To enhance the cellulose hydrolysis at high solid loadings, an increased mixing intensity is generally required for the high solid loading hydrolysis, while it leads to higher energy consumption. In this study, the impact of mixing intensity on cellulose conversion during hydrolysis at different solid loadings were systematically studied. It was found that the increased mixing intensity is not necessary for more efficient cellulose hydrolysis. For cellulose hydrolysis at higher solid loadings, a lower mixing intensity is needed for a higher cellulose conversion. Although the increased mixing intensity promoted enzyme adsorption, it strengthened product inhibition and caused severer enzyme deactivation. Besides, mixing at the initial stage of cellulose hydrolysis was more crucial, while continuous mixing throughout the hydrolysis was not required for more efficient cellulose hydrolysis. Based on the mechanism study, a combined mixing strategy was developed to achieve efficient cellulose hydrolysis with about two-third reduction in energy consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxiao Jiang
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, 200 Xiaolingwei Street, Nanjing 210094, China
| | - Rui Zhai
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, 200 Xiaolingwei Street, Nanjing 210094, China
| | - Mingjie Jin
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, 200 Xiaolingwei Street, Nanjing 210094, China.
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Li Q, Hu C, Li M, Truong P, Naik MT, Prabhu D, Hoffmann L, Rooney WL, Yuan JS. Discovering Biomass Structural Determinants Defining the Properties of Plant-Derived Renewable Carbon Fiber. iScience 2020; 23:101405. [PMID: 32771975 PMCID: PMC7415838 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2019] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional lignocellulosic feedstock research has focused on biomass characteristics essential for improving saccharification efficiency, yet the key biomass features underlying high-quality renewable lignin materials remain unknown. Nevertheless, modern biorefinery cannot achieve sustainability and cost-effectiveness unless the lignin stream can be valorized. We hereby addressed these scientific gaps by investigating biomass characteristics defining lignin-based carbon materials properties. Lignin from eight sorghum samples with diverse characteristics was fabricated into carbon fibers (CFs). Remarkably, only lignin uniformity was found to define CF mechanical performance, highlighting the new structure-property relationship. Contrarily, lignin content and composition did not impact on carbon material properties. Mechanistic study by XRD and Raman spectroscopy revealed that higher lignin uniformity enhanced CF microstructures, in particular, turbostratic carbon content. The study for the first time highlighted lignin uniformity as an important biomass structure determinant for renewable products, which opened up new avenues for feedstock design toward diverse products enabling sustainable and cost-effective bioeconomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Li
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Innovation Hub, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Cheng Hu
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Innovation Hub, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Mengjie Li
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Innovation Hub, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; College of Resources and Environment, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730030, China
| | - Phuc Truong
- Soft Matter Facility, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Mandar T Naik
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Physiology and Biotechnology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Dwarkanath Prabhu
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Innovation Hub, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Leo Hoffmann
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - William L Rooney
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Joshua S Yuan
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Innovation Hub, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
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Consolidated bio-saccharification: Leading lignocellulose bioconversion into the real world. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 40:107535. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Yang H, Yoo CG, Meng X, Pu Y, Muchero W, Tuskan GA, Tschaplinski TJ, Ragauskas AJ, Yao L. Structural changes of lignins in natural Populus variants during different pretreatments. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2020; 295:122240. [PMID: 31639629 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, three leading pretreatment technologies including dilute acid (DA), liquid hot water (LHW), and organosolv pretreatments (OS) were applied on two Populus natural variants with different recalcitrance. The structural features of the isolated lignins were analyzed accordingly. All the studied pretreatments reduced the molecular weights of the lignins. Aliphatic OH was reduced while phenolic OH was increased in all pretreated lignins. HSQC analysis revealed that pretreatment influenced the lignin composition and relative distribution of inter-unit linkages. The lignin S/G ratio was found to increase during DA pretreatment, while it was decreased after LHW and OS pretreatment. LHW pretreatment also resulted in much less cleavage of β-O-4 linkage than the other two pretreatments. These results could offer guidelines on appropriate selection of biomass and pretreatment technology in the future biorefinery process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Yang
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-weight Materials and Processing, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, China; Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Chang Geun Yoo
- Department of Paper and Bioprocess Engineering, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Xianzhi Meng
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Yunqiao Pu
- The Center for Bioenergy Innovation & BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Wellington Muchero
- The Center for Bioenergy Innovation & BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Gerald A Tuskan
- The Center for Bioenergy Innovation & BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Timothy J Tschaplinski
- The Center for Bioenergy Innovation & BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Arthur J Ragauskas
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA; The Center for Bioenergy Innovation & BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA; Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, Center for Renewable Carbon, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Lan Yao
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-weight Materials and Processing, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, China; Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
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Liu S, Liu YJ, Feng Y, Li B, Cui Q. Construction of consolidated bio-saccharification biocatalyst and process optimization for highly efficient lignocellulose solubilization. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2019; 12:35. [PMID: 30820245 PMCID: PMC6378752 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-019-1374-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The industrial conversion of biomass to high-value biofuels and biochemical is mainly restricted by lignocellulose solubilization. Consolidated bio-saccharification (CBS) is considered a promising process for lignocellulose solubilization depending on whole-cell biocatalysts that simultaneously perform effective cellulase production and hydrolysis. However, it usually takes a long time to reach a high saccharification level using the current CBS biocatalyst and process. RESULTS To promote the saccharification efficiency and reduce the cost, a Clostridium thermocellum recombinant strain ∆pyrF::KBm was constructed as a new CBS biocatalyst in this study. The key CBS factors, including the medium, inoculum size and cultivation, and substrate load, were investigated and optimized. The saccharification process was also stimulated by adding free hemicellulases, suggesting the need to further enhance hemicellulase activity of the whole-cell catalyst. Under the optimal conditions, the CBS process was shortened by 50% with pretreated wheat straw as the substrate. The sugar yield reached 0.795 g/g and the saccharification level was 89.3%. CONCLUSIONS This work provided a new biocatalyst and an optimized process of CBS and confirmed that CBS is a feasible strategy for cost-efficient solubilization of lignocellulose, which will greatly promote the industrial utilization of lignocellulosic biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyue Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ya-Jun Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
| | - Yingang Feng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
| | - Bin Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
| | - Qiu Cui
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
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Kim KH, Wang Y, Takada M, Eudes A, Yoo CG, Kim CS, Saddler J. Deep Eutectic Solvent Pretreatment of Transgenic Biomass With Increased C 6C 1 Lignin Monomers. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:1774. [PMID: 32082342 PMCID: PMC7000926 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The complex and heterogeneous polyphenolic structure of lignin confers recalcitrance to plant cell walls and challenges biomass processing for agroindustrial applications. Recently, significant efforts have been made to alter lignin composition to overcome its inherent intractability. In this work, to overcome technical difficulties related to biomass recalcitrance, we report an integrated strategy combining biomass genetic engineering with a pretreatment using a bio-derived deep eutectic solvent (DES). In particular, we employed biomass from an Arabidopsis line that expressed a bacterial hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA hydratase-lyase (HCHL) in lignifying tissues, which results in the accumulation of unusual C6C1 lignin monomers and a slight decrease in lignin molecular weight. The transgenic biomass was pretreated with renewable DES that can be synthesized from lignin-derived phenols. Biomass from the HCHL plant line containing C6C1 monomers showed increased pretreatment efficiency and released more fermentable sugars up to 34% compared to WT biomass. The enhanced biomass saccharification of the HCHL line is likely due to a reduction of lignin recalcitrance caused by the overproduction of C6C1 aromatics that act as degree of polymerization (DP) reducers and higher chemical reactivity of lignin structures with such C6C1 aromatics. Overall, our findings demonstrate that strategic plant genetic engineering, along with renewable DES pretreatment, could enable the development of sustainable biorefinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwang Ho Kim
- Clean Energy Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- *Correspondence: Kwang Ho Kim,
| | - Yunxuan Wang
- Department of Paper and Bioprocess Engineering, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - Masatsugu Takada
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Aymerick Eudes
- Feedstocks Division, Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, United States
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Chang Geun Yoo
- Department of Paper and Bioprocess Engineering, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - Chang Soo Kim
- Clean Energy Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jack Saddler
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Yao L, Yang H, Yoo CG, Pu Y, Meng X, Muchero W, Tuskan GA, Tschaplinski T, Ragauskas AJ. Understanding the influences of different pretreatments on recalcitrance of Populus natural variants. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2018; 265:75-81. [PMID: 29883849 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.05.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Revised: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Four different pretreatment technologies were applied to two Populus natural variants and the effects of each pretreatment on glucose release were compared. Physicochemical properties of pretreated biomass were analyzed by attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, gel permeation chromatography, and cross polarization/magic angle spinning carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance techniques. The results revealed that hemicellulose and lignin were removed to different extents during various pretreatments. The degree of polymerization of cellulose was decreased in the order of alkali > hydrothermal > organosolv > dilute acid pretreatment. Cellulose crystallinity index was slightly increased after each pretreatment. The results also demonstrated that organosolv pretreatment resulted in the highest glucose yield. Among the tested properties of Populus, degree of polymerization of cellulose was negatively correlated with glucose release, whereas hemicellulose and lignin removal, and cellulose accessibility were positively associated with glucose release from the two Populus natural variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Yao
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, China; Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Haitao Yang
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, China; Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Chang Geun Yoo
- The Center for Bioenergy Innovation & BioEnergy Science Center, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Yunqiao Pu
- The Center for Bioenergy Innovation & BioEnergy Science Center, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Xianzhi Meng
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Wellington Muchero
- The Center for Bioenergy Innovation & BioEnergy Science Center, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Gerald A Tuskan
- The Center for Bioenergy Innovation & BioEnergy Science Center, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Timothy Tschaplinski
- The Center for Bioenergy Innovation & BioEnergy Science Center, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Arthur J Ragauskas
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA; Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, Center for Renewable Carbon, The University of Tennessee Knoxville, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA; The Center for Bioenergy Innovation & BioEnergy Science Center, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA.
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