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Wang C, Liu L, Wang T, Liu X, Peng W, Srivastav RK, Zhu XQ, Gupta N, Gasser RB, Hu M. H11-induced immunoprotection is predominantly linked to N-glycan moieties during Haemonchus contortus infection. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1034820. [PMID: 36405717 PMCID: PMC9667387 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1034820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Nematodes are one of the largest groups of animals on the planet. Many of them are major pathogens of humans, animals and plants, and cause destructive diseases and socioeconomic losses worldwide. Despite their adverse impacts on human health and agriculture, nematodes can be challenging to control, because anthelmintic treatments do not prevent re-infection, and excessive treatment has led to widespread drug resistance in nematode populations. Indeed, many nematode species of livestock animals have become resistant to almost all classes of anthelmintics used. Most efforts to develop commercial anti-nematode vaccines (native or recombinant) for use in animals and humans have not succeeded, although one effective (dead) vaccine (Barbervax) has been developed to protect animals against one of the most pathogenic parasites of livestock animals – Haemonchus contortus (the barber’s pole worm). This vaccine contains native molecules, called H11 and H-Gal-GP, derived from the intestine of this blood-feeding worm. In its native form, H11 alone consistently induces high levels (75-95%) of immunoprotection in animals against disease (haemonchosis), but recombinant forms thereof do not. Here, to test the hypothesis that post-translational modification (glycosylation) of H11 plays a crucial role in achieving such high immunoprotection, we explored the N-glycoproteome and N-glycome of H11 using the high-resolution mass spectrometry and assessed the roles of N-glycosylation in protective immunity against H. contortus. Our results showed conclusively that N-glycan moieties on H11 are the dominant immunogens, which induce high IgG serum antibody levels in immunised animals, and that anti-H11 IgG antibodies can confer specific, passive immunity in naïve animals. This work provides the first detailed account of the relevance and role of protein glycosylation in protective immunity against a parasitic nematode, with important implications for the design of vaccines against metazoan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunqun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Lu Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Tianjiao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xin Liu
- College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Wenjie Peng
- Shanghai Center for Systems Biomedicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ratnesh Kumar Srivastav
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science – Pilani (BITS-P), Hyderabad, India
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China
| | - Nishith Gupta
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science – Pilani (BITS-P), Hyderabad, India
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Robin B. Gasser
- Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- *Correspondence: Robin B. Gasser, ; Min Hu,
| | - Min Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- *Correspondence: Robin B. Gasser, ; Min Hu,
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Investigating the importance of B cells and antibodies during Trichuris muris infection using the IgMi mouse. J Mol Med (Berl) 2020; 98:1301-1317. [PMID: 32778925 PMCID: PMC7447682 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-020-01954-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract The IgMi mouse has normal B cell development; its B cells express an IgM B cell receptor but cannot class switch or secrete antibody. Thus, the IgMi mouse offers a model system by which to dissect out antibody-dependent and antibody-independent B cell function. Here, we provide the first detailed characterisation of the IgMi mouse post-Trichuris muris (T. muris) infection, describing expulsion phenotype, cytokine production, gut pathology and changes in T regulatory cells, T follicular helper cells and germinal centre B cells, in addition to RNA sequencing (RNA seq) analyses of wild-type littermates (WT) and mutant B cells prior to and post infection. IgMi mice were susceptible to a high-dose infection, with reduced Th2 cytokines and elevated B cell-derived IL-10 in mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) compared to controls. A low-dose infection regime revealed IgMi mice to have significantly more apoptotic cells in the gut compared to WT mice, but no change in intestinal inflammation. IL-10 levels were again elevated. Collectively, this study showcases the potential of the IgMi mouse as a tool for understanding B cell biology and suggests that the B cell plays both antibody-dependent and antibody-independent roles post high- and low-dose T. muris infection. Key messages During a high-dose T. muris infection, B cells are important in maintaining the Th1/Th2 balance in the MLN through an antibody-independent mechanism. High levels of IL-10 in the MLN early post-infection, and the presence of IL-10-producing B cells, correlates with susceptibility to T. muris infection. B cells maintain gut homeostasis during chronic T. muris infection via an antibody-dependent mechanism.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00109-020-01954-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Egesa M, Lubyayi L, Jones FM, van Diepen A, Chalmers IW, Tukahebwa EM, Bagaya BS, Hokke CH, Hoffmann KF, Dunne DW, Elliott AM, Yazdanbakhsh M, Wilson S, Cose S. Antibody responses to Schistosoma mansoni schistosomula antigens. Parasite Immunol 2018; 40:e12591. [PMID: 30239012 PMCID: PMC6492298 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
While antigens from Schistosoma schistosomula have been suggested as potential vaccine candidates, the association between antibody responses with schistosomula antigens and infection intensity at reinfection is not well known. Schistosoma mansoni-infected individuals were recruited from a schistosomiasis endemic area in Uganda (n = 372), treated with 40 mg/kg praziquantel (PZQ) and followed up at five weeks and at one year post-treatment. Pre-treatment and five weeks post-treatment immunoglobulin (Ig) E, IgG1 and IgG4 levels against recombinant schistosomula antigens rSmKK7, rSmLy6A, rSmLy6B and rSmTSP7 were measured using ELISA. Factors associated with detectable pre-treatment or post-treatment antibody response against the schistosomula antigens and the association between five-week antibody responses and one year post-treatment reinfection intensity among antibody responders were examined. Being male was associated with higher pre-treatment IgG1 to rSmKK7, rSmLy6a and AWA. Five weeks post-treatment antibody responses against schistosomula antigens were not associated with one year post-treatment reinfection intensity among antibody responders' antibody levels against rSmKK7, rSmLy6B and rSmTSP7 dropped, but increased against rSmLy6A, AWA and SEA at five weeks post-treatment among antibody responders. S. mansoni-infected individuals exhibit detectable antibody responses to schistosomula antigens that are affected by treatment. These findings indicate that schistosomula antigens induce highly varied antibody responses and could have implications for vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moses Egesa
- Department of Medical MicrobiologySchool of Biomedical SciencesMakerere University College of Health SciencesKampalaUganda
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine Uganda Research UnitEntebbeUganda
| | - Lawrence Lubyayi
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine Uganda Research UnitEntebbeUganda
| | | | - Angela van Diepen
- Department of ParasitologyLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenThe Netherlands
| | - Iain W. Chalmers
- Institute of Biological, Environmental & Rural SciencesAberystwyth UniversityAberystwythUK
| | | | - Bernard S. Bagaya
- Department of Immunology and Molecular BiologySchool of Biomedical SciencesMakerere University College of Health SciencesKampalaUganda
| | - Cornelis H. Hokke
- Department of ParasitologyLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenThe Netherlands
| | - Karl F. Hoffmann
- Institute of Biological, Environmental & Rural SciencesAberystwyth UniversityAberystwythUK
| | - David W. Dunne
- Department of PathologyUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Alison M. Elliott
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine Uganda Research UnitEntebbeUganda
- Department of Clinical ResearchLondon School of Hygiene & Tropical MedicineLondonUK
| | - Maria Yazdanbakhsh
- Department of ParasitologyLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenThe Netherlands
| | - Shona Wilson
- Department of PathologyUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Stephen Cose
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine Uganda Research UnitEntebbeUganda
- Department of Clinical ResearchLondon School of Hygiene & Tropical MedicineLondonUK
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Yang YYM, van Diepen A, Brzezicka K, Reichardt NC, Hokke CH. Glycan Microarray-Assisted Identification of IgG Subclass Targets in Schistosomiasis. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2331. [PMID: 30356796 PMCID: PMC6190862 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection with schistosomes is accompanied by the induction of antibodies against the parasite. Despite having IgG against both protein and glycan antigens, infected individuals remain chronically infected until treated, and re-infection is common in endemic areas as immunity does not develop effectively. Parasite specific IgG subclasses may differ in functionality and effectivity with respect to effector functions that contribute to parasite killing and immunity. In this study, we investigated if specific IgG subclasses target specific antigenic schistosome glycan motifs during human infection. Sera from 41 S. mansoni infected individuals from an endemic area in Uganda were incubated on two glycan microarrays, one consisting of a large repertoire of schistosome glycoprotein- and glycolipid- derived glycans and the other consisting of chemically synthesized core xylosylated and fucosylated N-glycans also expressed by schistosomes. Our results show that highly antigenic glycan motifs, such as multi-fucosylated terminal GalNAc(β1-4)GlcNAc (LDN) can be recognized by all IgG subclasses of infection sera, however with highly variable intensities. Detailed examination of core-modified N-glycan targets revealed individual antibody responses specific for core-xylosylated and core α3-fucosylated glycan motifs that are life stage specifically expressed by schistosomes. IgG1 and IgG3 were detected against a range of N-glycan core structures, but IgG2 and IgG4, when present, were specific for the core α3-fucose and xylose motifs that were previously found to be IgE targets in schistosomiasis, and in allergies. This study is the first to address IgG subclass responses to defined helminth glycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Y Michelle Yang
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Angela van Diepen
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Katarzyna Brzezicka
- Glycotechnology Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Cooperativa en Biomateriales (CIC biomaGUNE), San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Niels-Christian Reichardt
- Glycotechnology Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Cooperativa en Biomateriales (CIC biomaGUNE), San Sebastián, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Cornelis H Hokke
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
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González-Fernández J, Rivas L, Luque-Ortega JR, Núñez-Ramírez R, Campioli P, Gárate T, Perteguer MJ, Daschner A, Cuéllar C. Recombinant vs native Anisakis haemoglobin (Ani s 13): Its appraisal as a new gold standard for the diagnosis of allergy. Exp Parasitol 2017; 181:119-129. [PMID: 28818650 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2017.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 08/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Recombinant allergens are currently the best option for serodiagnosis of human anisakiasis in terms of sensitivity and specificity. However, previous reports showed high rates of anisakiasis patients who were negative to Ani s 7 and especially to Ani s 1. Recently, Anisakis haemoglobin was described as a major allergen (Ani s 13). Although Ani s 13 belongs to a conserved protein family, it seems not to be a cross-reacting antigen because of the absence of IgE recognition against Ascaris haemoglobin in Anisakis patients. The aim of this study is to develop a more sensitive and specific diagnosis tool for Anisakis based on the recently discovered allergen Ani s 13. We obtained and purified recombinant Anisakis haemoglobin (rAni s 13) and the native form (nAni s 13). The recognition of both recombinant and native haemoglobins by anti-haemoglobin IgE from patients' sera was assessed by indirect ELISA and immunoblotting using 43 Anisakis sensitised patients and 44 non-Anisakis sensitised patients. Native Ani s 13 was also treated with periodate to study if oxidation of glycans destroys antibody binding. Furthermore, it was structurally characterised by negative staining electron microscopy and analytical ultracentrifugation. Recombinant Ani s 13 was only recognised by four patients with gastro-allergic anisakiasis (GAA) and immunoblotting analyses showed no bands. However, nAni s 13 was detected by 72.1% of Anisakis sensitised patients measured by indirect ELISA. Particularly, 18 (90%) out of 20 GAA patients were positive. Tetramers and octamers were the most abundant homomers of nAni s 13 but octamers had higher content of bound heme. None of the non-Anisakis sensitised patients were positive. Combined use of purified native form of Ani s 13 with current gold standards would improve the sensitivity and specificity for diagnosing anisakiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan González-Fernández
- Departamento de Parasitología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Luis Rivas
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan Román Luque-Ortega
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Rafael Núñez-Ramírez
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Pamela Campioli
- Servicio de Parasitología, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), 28220 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Teresa Gárate
- Servicio de Parasitología, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), 28220 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - María J Perteguer
- Servicio de Parasitología, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), 28220 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alvaro Daschner
- Servicio de Alergia, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, Hospital Universitario de La Princesa, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Cuéllar
- Departamento de Parasitología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Chen SB, Ai L, Hu W, Xu J, Bergquist R, Qin ZQ, Chen JH. New Anti-Schistosoma Approaches in The People's Republic of China: Development of Diagnostics, Vaccines and Other New Techniques Belonging to the 'Omics' Group. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2016; 92:385-408. [PMID: 27137453 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2016.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
A new national schistosomiasis elimination programme will be implemented for the period 2016-20. To support this approach, we have performed a systematic review to assess anti-schistosome approaches in The People's Republic of China and defined research priorities for the coming years. A systematic search was conducted for articles published from January 2000 to March 2015 in international journals. Totally 410 references were published in English between 2000 and 2015 related to schistosomiasis after unrelated references and reviews or comments were further excluded. A set of research priorities has been identified for the near future that would improve the progress toward schistosomiasis elimination in The People's Republic of China. In particular, there is a lack of sensitive and specific tests for the detection of schistosomiasis cases with low parasite burdens, as well as an effective vaccine against schistosomiasis, and there is a need for surveillance tools that can evaluate the epidemic status for guiding the elimination strategy. Hence, we think that schistosomiasis control and elimination will be improved in The People's Republic of China through development of new tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- S-B Chen
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology of the Chinese Ministry of Health, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China
| | - L Ai
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology of the Chinese Ministry of Health, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China
| | - W Hu
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology of the Chinese Ministry of Health, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; Fudan University, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China
| | - J Xu
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology of the Chinese Ministry of Health, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China
| | - R Bergquist
- Geospatial Health, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Z-Q Qin
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology of the Chinese Ministry of Health, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China
| | - J-H Chen
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology of the Chinese Ministry of Health, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China; WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai, The People's Republic of China
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Zhang W, Luo X, Zhang F, Zhu Y, Yang B, Hou M, Xu Z, Yu C, Chen Y, Chen L, Ji M. SjTat-TPI facilitates adaptive T-cell responses and reduces hepatic pathology during Schistosoma japonicum infection in BALB/c mice. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:664. [PMID: 26714844 PMCID: PMC4696208 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1275-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Schistosomiasis is a kind of parasitic zoonoses which causes serious damage to public health and social development. China is one of the countries most affected by Schistosoma japonicum and an effective vaccine is still needed. In this study, we adopted Tat-mediated protein transduction technology to investigate the impact of different antigen presented approaches on host’s immune response and the potential protection against Schistosoma japonicum infection. Results We successfully constructed the recombinant S. japonicum triosephosphate isomerase, Tat-TPI, as a vaccine candidate. Whether injected with Tat-TPI in foot pad or vaccinated with Tat-TPI in the back subcutaneously for three times, the draining popliteal lymph nodes and spleen both developed a stronger CD8+T response (Tc1) in mice. Not only that, but it also helped CD4+T cells to produce more IFN-γ than TPI immunisation. In addition, it could boost IgG production, especially IgG1 subclass. Most importantly, Tat-TPI immunisation led to the significant smaller area of a single egg granuloma in the livers as compared with TPI-vaccinated or control groups. However, the anti-infection efficiency induced by Tat-TPI was still restricted. Conclusion This study indicated that immunisation with Tat-fused TPI could contribute to enhance CD4+T-cell response and decrease hepatic egg granulomatous area after S. japonicum infection though it did not achieve our expected protection against Schistosoma japonicum infection. The optimal vaccine strategy warrants further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyue Zhang
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
| | - Xiaofeng Luo
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
| | - Fan Zhang
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
| | - Yuxiao Zhu
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
| | - Bingya Yang
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China. .,Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Modern Pathogen Biology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
| | - Min Hou
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
| | - Zhipeng Xu
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China. .,Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Modern Pathogen Biology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
| | - Chuanxin Yu
- Jiangsu Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214064, China.
| | - Yingying Chen
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
| | - Lin Chen
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China. .,Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Modern Pathogen Biology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
| | - Minjun Ji
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China. .,Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Modern Pathogen Biology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
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