1
|
Northcote HM, Wititkornkul B, Cutress DJ, Allen ND, Brophy PM, Wonfor RE, Morphew RM. A dominance of Mu class glutathione transferases within the equine tapeworm Anoplocephala perfoliata. Parasitology 2024; 151:282-294. [PMID: 38200699 PMCID: PMC11007280 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182024000015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
The most common equine tapeworm, Anoplocephala perfoliata, has often been neglected amongst molecular investigations and has been faced with limited treatment options. However, the recent release of a transcriptome dataset has now provided opportunities for in-depth analysis of A. perfoliata protein expression. Here, global, and sub-proteomic approaches were utilized to provide a comprehensive characterization of the A. perfoliata soluble glutathione transferases (GST) (ApGST). Utilizing both bioinformatics and gel-based proteomics, GeLC and 2D-SDS PAGE, the A. perfoliata ‘GST-ome’ was observed to be dominated with Mu class GST representatives. In addition, both Sigma and Omega class GSTs were identified, albeit to a lesser extent and absent from affinity chromatography approaches. Moreover, 51 ApGSTs were localized across somatic (47 GSTs), extracellular vesicles (EVs) (Whole: 1 GST, Surface: 2 GSTs) and EV depleted excretory secretory product (ESP) (9 GSTs) proteomes. In related helminths, GSTs have shown promise as novel anthelmintic or vaccine targets for improved helminth control. Thus, provides potential targets for understanding A. perfoliata novel infection mechanisms, host–parasite relationships and anthelmintic treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Holly M. Northcote
- Department of Life Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth SY23 3DA, UK
| | - Boontarikaan Wititkornkul
- Department of Life Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth SY23 3DA, UK
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80240, Thailand
| | - David J. Cutress
- Department of Life Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth SY23 3DA, UK
| | - Nathan D. Allen
- Department of Life Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth SY23 3DA, UK
| | - Peter M. Brophy
- Department of Life Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth SY23 3DA, UK
| | - Ruth E. Wonfor
- Department of Life Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth SY23 3DA, UK
| | - Russell M. Morphew
- Department of Life Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth SY23 3DA, UK
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wang N, Zhang Z, Huang L, Chen T, Yu X, Huang Y. Current status and progress in the omics of Clonorchis sinensis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2023; 255:111573. [PMID: 37127222 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2023.111573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Clonorchis sinensis (C. sinensis) is a fish-borne trematode that inhabits the bile duct of mammals including humans, cats, dogs, rats, and so on. In the complex life cycle of C. sinensis, the worm develops successively in two intermediate hosts in fresh water and one definitive host. What's more, it undergoes eight developmental stages with a distinct morphology. Clonorchiasis, caused by C. sinensis infection, is an important food-borne parasitic disease and one of the most common zoonoses. C. sinensis infection could result in hyperplasia of the bile duct epithelium, obstructive jaundice, gall-stones, cholecystitis and cholangitis, even liver cirrhosis and cholangiocarcinoma. Thus, clonorchiasis is a serious public health problem in endemic areas. Integrated strategies should be adopted in the prevention and control of clonorchiasis due to the epidemiological characteristics. The recent advances in high-throughput technologies have made available the profiling of multiple layers of a biological system, genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. These data can help us to get more information about the development, physiology, metabolism, and reproduction of the parasite as well as pathogenesis and parasite-host interactions in clonorchiasis. In the present study, we summarized recent progresses in omics studies on C. sinensis providing insights into the studies and future directions on treating and preventing C. sinensis associated diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nian Wang
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Diseases-vectors Control, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhuanling Zhang
- School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Lisi Huang
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Department of Clinical Laboratory, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510120, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Tingjin Chen
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Diseases-vectors Control, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinbing Yu
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Diseases-vectors Control, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Huang
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Diseases-vectors Control, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Xifeng W, Jiahua Z, Ningxing L, Guowu Z, Yunxia S, Xuepeng C, Jun Q, Xianzhu X, Qingling M. The regulatory roles of Fasciola hepatica GSTO1 protein in inflammatory cytokine expression and apoptosis in murine macrophages. Acta Trop 2023; 245:106977. [PMID: 37399980 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.106977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/05/2023]
Abstract
Fascioliasis, a global zoonotic parasitic disease, is mainly caused by Fasciola hepatica (F. hepatica) parasitizing in the livers of hosts, mainly humans and herbivores. Glutathione S-transferase (GST) is one of the important excretory- secretory products (ESPs) from F. hepatica, however, the regulatory roles of its Omega subtype in the immunomodulatory effects remain unknown. Here, we expressed F. hepatica recombinant GSTO1 protein (rGSTO1) in Pichia pastoris and analyzed its antioxidant properties. Then, the interaction between F. hepatica rGSTO1 and RAW264.7 macrophages and its effects on inflammatory responses and cell apoptosis were further explored. The results revealed that GSTO1 of F. hepatica owned the potent ability to resist oxidative stress. F. hepatica rGSTO1 could interact with RAW264.7 macrophages and inhibit its cell viability, furthermore, it may suppress the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, but promote the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. In addition, F. hepatica rGSTO1 may down-regulate the ratio of Bcl-2/Bax, and increase the expression of pro-apoptotic protein caspase-3, thereby eliciting the apoptosis of macrophages. Notably, F. hepatica rGSTO1 inhibited the activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and mitogen‑activated protein kinases (MAPKs p38, ERK and JNK) pathways in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells, exerting potent modulatory effects on macrophages. These findings suggested that F. hepatica GSTO1 can modulate the host immune response, which provided new insights into the immune evasion mechanism of F. hepatica infection in host.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wang Xifeng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Zhang Jiahua
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Li Ningxing
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Zhang Guowu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Shang Yunxia
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Cai Xuepeng
- State Key Lab of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu 730046, China
| | - Qiao Jun
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Xia Xianzhu
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, Jilin 130062, China.
| | - Meng Qingling
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Miles S, Mourglia-Ettlin G, Fernández V. Identification of Omega-class glutathione transferases in helminths of the Taeniidae family. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2023; 254:111559. [PMID: 37024059 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2023.111559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione transferase enzymes (GSTs) are believed to be a major detoxification system in helminth parasites and have been associated with immunomodulation of the host response. Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.) is a cestode parasite known to express at least five different GSTs, but no Omega-class enzymes have been reported in this parasite or in any other cestode. Herein we report the identification of a new member of the GST superfamily in E. granulosus s.l., which is phylogenetically related to the Omega-class: EgrGSTO. Through mass spectrometry, we showed that the 237 amino acids protein EgrGSTO is expressed by the parasite. Moreover, we identified homologues of EgrGSTO in other eight members of the Taeniidae family, including E. canadensis, E. multilocularis, E. oligarthrus, Hydatigera taeniaeformis, Taenia asiatica, T. multiceps, T. saginata and T. solium. A manual sequence inspection and rational modification yielded eight Taeniidae's GSTO sequences, each one encoding for a 237 aa polypeptide showing 80.2% overall identity. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first description of genes encoding for Omega-class GSTs in worms belonging to the Taeniidae family -that at least in E. granulosus s.l. is expressed as a protein- suggesting the gene encodes for a functional protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastián Miles
- Área Inmunología, Departamento de Biociencias, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Gustavo Mourglia-Ettlin
- Área Inmunología, Departamento de Biociencias, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Verónica Fernández
- Área Inmunología, Departamento de Biociencias, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Kim JG, Kang I, Ahn CS, Sohn WM, Kong Y. Omega-Class Glutathione Transferases Protect DNA from Oxidative Stress in Pathogenic Helminth Reproductive Cells. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12030560. [PMID: 36978808 PMCID: PMC10045047 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12030560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic helminths have evolved mechanisms to preserve reproductive function while surviving long-term in the host via robust protective responses. A protective role of antioxidant enzymes in preventing DNA degradation has long been proposed, but little evidence has been provided. Here, we show that omega-class glutathione transferases (GSTOs) are critical for maintaining viability by protecting the reproductive cell DNA of the carcinogenic liver fluke, Clonorchis sinensis. Clonorchis sinensis GSTO (CsGSTO) activities modified by changes in the GSH/GSSG and NADPH/NADP+ molar ratios suppressed the overproduction of reactive oxygen species. CsGSTO1 and CsGSTO2 catalyzed deglutathionylation under physiologic and low-stress conditions (GSH/GSSG ratio of 23:1 or higher) but promoted glutathionylation under high-stress conditions (GSH/GSSG ratio of 3:1 or lower). Gliotoxin-induced functional disruption of CsGSTOs in living C. sinensis reduced the GSH/GSSG molar ratio and increased the production of protein glutathionylation (PSSG) under physiologic and low-stress conditions, indicating that suppression of GSTO function did not affect deglutathionylation. However, the perturbation of CsGSTOs decreased the GSH/GSSG ratio but also reduced PSSG production under high oxidative stress, demonstrating that glutathionylation was impeded. In response to oxidative stimuli, C. sinensis decreased GSTO-specific dehydroascorbate reductase and thiol transferase activities and the GSH/GSSG ratio, while it increased the NADPH/NADP+ ratio and PSSG. CsGSTOs utilized GSH to regulate GSH/GSSG and NADPH/NADP+ recycling and triggered a redox signal leading to nuclear translocation. Nuclear-imported CsGSTOs were modified by glutathionylation to prevent DNA damage. Antibodies specific to CsGSTOs dose-dependently inhibited this process. Disruption of CsGSTOs or the depletion of GSH caused glutathionylation defects, leading to DNA degradation. Our results demonstrate that CsGSTOs and the GSH system play a previously unappreciated role in protecting DNA from oxidative stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeong-Geun Kim
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Insug Kang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kyung Hee University School of Medicine, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Chun-Seob Ahn
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Woon-Mok Sohn
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, Gyeongsang National University College of Medicine, Jinju 52727, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon Kong
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Jeong H, Yoon C, Lee JS, Byeon E. Differential susceptibility to arsenic in glutathione S-transferase omega 2 (GST-O2)-targeted freshwater water flea Daphnia magna mutants. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2023; 254:106364. [PMID: 36463774 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2022.106364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
To examine the role of glutathione S-transferase omega class (GST-O2) genes in the biotransformation and detoxification in Daphnia magna, various responses such as in vivo endpoints, arsenic speciation, enzymatic activities, and gene expression pathways related to arsenic metabolism were investigated in wild-type (WT) and GST-O2-mutant-type (MT) fleas produced by CRISPR/Cas9. Sensitivity to arsenic in MT fleas was higher than in WT fleas. Also, the reduction rate of arsenate (AsV) to arsenite (AsIII) in the MT group was significantly lower and led to accumulation of higher arsenic concentrations, resulting in decreased protection against arsenic toxicity. Relative mRNA expression of other GST genes in the GST-O2-targeted MT group generally increased but the enzymatic activity of GST decreased compared with the WT group. Oxidative stress on arsenic exposure was more strongly induced in the MT group compared with the WT group, resulting in a decrease in the ability to defend against toxicity in GST-O2-targeted mutant D. magna. Our results suggest that GST-O2 plays an important role in arsenic biotransformation and detoxification functions in D. magna.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haksoo Jeong
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Cheolho Yoon
- Ochang Center, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju 28119, South Korea
| | - Jae-Seong Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea.
| | - Eunjin Byeon
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Mordvinov V, Pakharukova M. Xenobiotic-Metabolizing Enzymes in Trematodes. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10123039. [PMID: 36551794 PMCID: PMC9775572 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10123039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Trematode infections occur worldwide causing considerable deterioration of human health and placing a substantial financial burden on the livestock industry. The hundreds of millions of people afflicted with trematode infections rely entirely on only two drugs (praziquantel and triclabendazole) for treatment. An understanding of anthelmintic biotransformation pathways in parasites should clarify factors that can modulate therapeutic potency of anthelmintics currently in use and may lead to the discovery of synergistic compounds for combination treatments. Despite the pronounced epidemiological significance of trematodes, there is still no adequate understanding of the functionality of their metabolic systems, including xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. The review is focused on the structure and functional significance of the xenobiotic-metabolizing system in trematodes. Knowledge in this field can solve practical problems related to the search for new targets for antiparasitic therapy based on a focused action on certain elements of the parasite's metabolic system. Knowledge of the functionality of this system is required to understand the adaptation of the biochemical processes of parasites residing in the host and mechanisms of drug resistance development, as well as to select a promising molecular target for the discovery and development of new anthelmintic drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Viatcheslav Mordvinov
- Laboratory of Molecular Mechanisms of Pathological Processes, Institute of Cytology and Genetics SB RAS, 10 Akad. Lavrentiev Ave., Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
| | - Maria Pakharukova
- Laboratory of Molecular Mechanisms of Pathological Processes, Institute of Cytology and Genetics SB RAS, 10 Akad. Lavrentiev Ave., Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 2 Pirogov Str., Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-(913)-394-6669
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Evolutionary Adaptations of Parasitic Flatworms to Different Oxygen Tensions. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11061102. [PMID: 35739999 PMCID: PMC9220675 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11061102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
During the evolution of the Earth, the increase in the atmospheric concentration of oxygen gave rise to the development of organisms with aerobic metabolism, which utilized this molecule as the ultimate electron acceptor, whereas other organisms maintained an anaerobic metabolism. Platyhelminthes exhibit both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism depending on the availability of oxygen in their environment and/or due to differential oxygen tensions during certain stages of their life cycle. As these organisms do not have a circulatory system, gas exchange occurs by the passive diffusion through their body wall. Consequently, the flatworms developed several adaptations related to the oxygen gradient that is established between the aerobic tegument and the cellular parenchyma that is mostly anaerobic. Because of the aerobic metabolism, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is produced in abundance. Catalase usually scavenges H2O2 in mammals; however, this enzyme is absent in parasitic platyhelminths. Thus, the architecture of the antioxidant systems is different, depending primarily on the superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and peroxiredoxin enzymes represented mainly in the tegument. Here, we discuss the adaptations that parasitic flatworms have developed to be able to transit from the different metabolic conditions to those they are exposed to during their life cycle.
Collapse
|
9
|
Wang X, Zhao C, Zhang G, Zhang K, Li Z, Shang Y, Ning C, Ji C, Xia X, Cai X, Qiao J, Meng Q. Molecular characterization of a novel GSTO2 of Fasciola hepatica and its roles in modulating murine macrophages. Parasite 2022; 29:16. [PMID: 35315767 PMCID: PMC8939299 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2022016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Fascioliasis is an important zoonotic helminthic disease caused by Fasciola hepatica and poses a serious threat to global public health. To evade the immune response of its host (humans or animals), F. hepatica secretes various antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione transferase (GST) to facilitate its invasion, migration and parasitism in vivo. To investigate the biological functions of a novel omega-class GST (GSTO), the molecular features of GSTO2 of F. hepatica were analyzed by online software, and the biochemical properties in vitro of recombinant GSTO2 (rGSTO2) were dissected. Then, the regulatory roles of rGSTO2 protein in murine macrophages in vitro were further explored. The results revealed that the GSTO2 gene encodes 254 amino acids, which harbor the characteristic N-terminal domain (βαβαββα) and C-terminal domain (α-helical) of the cytoplasmic GST superfamily. GSTO2 was mainly expressed in F. hepatica vitelline follicles, intestinal tract, excretory pores and vitelline cells, with thioltransferase and dehydroascorbate reductase activities. Moreover, rGSTO2 protein could be taken up by murine macrophages and significantly inhibit the viability of macrophages. In addition, rGSTO2 protein could significantly promote apoptosis and modulate the expression of cytokines in macrophages. These findings suggested that F. hepatica GSTO2 plays an important role in modulating the physiological functions of macrophages, whereby this protein might be involved in immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory roles during infection. This study provided new insights into the immune-evasion mechanism of F. hepatica and may contribute to the development of a potential anti-inflammatory agent.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xifeng Wang
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Chunguang Zhao
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Guowu Zhang
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Kai Zhang
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Zhiyuan Li
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Yunxia Shang
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Chengcheng Ning
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Chunhui Ji
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Xianzhu Xia
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Xuepeng Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu 730046, China
| | - Jun Qiao
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| | - Qingling Meng
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang 832003, China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Arbildi P, La-Rocca S, Kun A, Lorenzatto KR, Monteiro KM, Zaha A, Mourglia-Ettlin G, Ferreira HB, Fernández V. Expression and distribution of glutathione transferases in protoscoleces of Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato. Acta Trop 2021; 221:105991. [PMID: 34089697 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2021.105991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione transferases (GSTs) belong to a diverse superfamily of multifunctional proteins involved in metabolic detoxification. In helminth parasite, GSTs are particularly relevant since they are also involved in host immunomodulation. Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.) is a cestode parasite known to express at least three phylogenetically distant cytosolic GSTs: EgGST1 and EgGST2 previously grouped within Mu and Sigma classes, respectively; and EgGST3 related to both Omega and Sigma classes. To better characterize E. granulosus s.l. GSTs, herein their expression and distribution were assessed in the pre-adult protoscolex (PSC) parasite stage. Potential transcriptional regulatory mechanisms of the corresponding EgGST genes were also explored. Firstly, the transcription of the three EgGSTs was significantly induced during the early stages of the murine model of infection, suggesting a potential role during parasite establishment. EgGST1 was detected in the parenchyma of PSCs and its expression increased after H2O2 exposure, supporting its role in detoxification. EgGST2 was mainly detected on the PSCs tegument, strategically localized for potential immunoregulation functions due to its Sigma-class characteristics. In addition, its expression increased after anthelmintic treatment, suggesting a role in chemotherapy resistance. Finally, the Omega-related EgGST3 was localized throughout the entire PSC body, including suckers and tegument, and since its expression also increased after H2O2 treatment, a potential role in oxidative stress response could also be ascribed. On the other hand, known cis-acting regulatory motifs were detected in EgGST genes, suggesting similar transcription processes to other eukaryotes. The results herein reported provide additional data regarding the roles of EgGSTs in E. granulosus s.l. biology, contributing to a better understanding of its host-parasite interaction.
Collapse
|
11
|
Ahn CS, Kim JG, Kang I, Kong Y. Omega-Class Glutathione Transferases of Carcinogenic Liver Fluke, Clonorchis sinensis, Modulate Apoptosis and Differentiation of Host Cholangiocytes. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10071017. [PMID: 34202740 PMCID: PMC8300630 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10071017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The small liver fluke Clonorchis sinensis causes hepatobiliary ductal infections in humans. Clonorchiasis is characterized histopathologically by ductal dysplasia, hyperplasia and metaplasia, which closely resembles cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). The disruption of programmed cell death is critical for malignant transformation, while molecular events underlying these phenomena have poorly been understood in clonorchiasis-related CCA tumorigenesis. We incorporated recombinant C. sinensis omega-class glutathione transferase (rCsGSTo) 1 or 2 into human intrahepatic biliary epithelial cells (HIBECs) and analyzed pathophysiological alterations of HIBECs upon the application of oxidative stress. rCsGSTos partially but significantly rescued HIBECs from cell death by inhibiting oxidative stress-induced apoptosis (p < 0.01). rCsGSTos modulated transcriptional levels of numerous genes. We analyzed 13 genes involved in programmed cell death (the upregulation of five antiapoptotic and two apoptotic genes, and the downregulation of one antiapoptotic and five apoptotic genes) and 11 genes associated with cell differentiation (the increase in seven and decrease in four genes) that showed significant modifications (p < 0.05). The induction profiles of the mRNA and proteins of these differentially regulated genes correlated well with each other, and mostly favored apoptotic suppression and/or cell differentiation. We detected increased active, phosphorylated forms of Src, PI3K/Akt, NF-κB p65, MKK3/6 and p38 MAPK, but not JNK and ERK1/2. CsGSTos were localized in the C. sinensis-infected rat cholangiocytes, where cytokeratin 19 was distributed. Our results demonstrated that CsGSTos excreted to the biliary lumen are internalized and accumulated in the host cholangiocytes. When cholangiocytes underwent oxidative stressful condition, CsGSTos appeared to be critically involved in both antiapoptotic process and the differentiation of host cholangiocytes through the regulation of target genes following the activation of responsible signal molecules.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Seob Ahn
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Samsung Medical Center, School of Medicine, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea; (C.-S.A.); (J.-G.K.)
| | - Jeong-Geun Kim
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Samsung Medical Center, School of Medicine, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea; (C.-S.A.); (J.-G.K.)
| | - Insug Kang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea;
| | - Yoon Kong
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Samsung Medical Center, School of Medicine, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea; (C.-S.A.); (J.-G.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-31-290-6251; Fax: +82-290-6269
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Na BK, Pak JH, Hong SJ. Clonorchis sinensis and clonorchiasis. Acta Trop 2020; 203:105309. [PMID: 31862466 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.105309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Clonorchis sinensis is a fish-borne trematode that inhabits the bile duct of mammals including humans. Clonorchiasis is prevalent in China, Korea, and Vietnam, and 15-20 million people are estimated to be infected by this fluke. Freshwater snails act as the first intermediate host for the proliferation of C. sinensis larvae and shed the cercariae into water. The cercariae penetrate the skin of freshwater fish and transform to metacercariae. Humans are infected by eating raw or undercooked freshwater fish as dishes of filet, "sashimi," or congee, which contain C. sinensis metacercariae. In humans, the C. sinensis metacercariae excyst in the duodenum, and juvenile flukes migrate up via bile chemotaxis into bile ducts. Once there, C. sinensis provokes hyperplasia of the bile duct epithelium, obstructive jaundice, ascites, liver enlargement and cirrhosis, and infrequent cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). Although the association between C. sinensis infection and CCA has been firmly established in past decades, the underlying mechanisms are not elucidated in detail. In the context of chronic clonorchiasis-associated hepatobiliary aberrations, the constitutive disruption of redox homeostasis and dysregulation of physiological signaling pathways may promote the malignant transformation of cholangiocytes, thus leading to substantial acquisition of a more aggressive phenotype by these cells: CCA. With advances of genomic and molecular biological approaches, diverse C. sinensis proteins that are essential for parasite physiology and pathogenicity have been identified and characterized. Some of the proteins have been considered as attractive targets for development of vaccines and chemotherapeutics. Candidate antigens for reliable serodiagnosis of clonorchiasis have been studied.
Collapse
|
13
|
Cancela M, Paes JA, Moura H, Barr JR, Zaha A, Ferreira HB. Unraveling oxidative stress response in the cestode parasite Echinococcus granulosus. Sci Rep 2019; 9:15876. [PMID: 31685918 PMCID: PMC6828748 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-52456-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Cystic hydatid disease (CHD) is a worldwide neglected zoonotic disease caused by Echinococcus granulosus. The parasite is well adapted to its host by producing protective molecules that modulate host immune response. An unexplored issue associated with the parasite's persistence in its host is how the organism can survive the oxidative stress resulting from parasite endogenous metabolism and host defenses. Here, we used hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to induce oxidative stress in E. granulosus protoescoleces (PSCs) to identify molecular pathways and antioxidant responses during H2O2 exposure. Using proteomics, we identified 550 unique proteins; including 474 in H2O2-exposed PSCs (H-PSCs) samples and 515 in non-exposed PSCs (C-PSCs) samples. Larger amounts of antioxidant proteins, including GSTs and novel carbonyl detoxifying enzymes, such as aldo-keto reductase and carbonyl reductase, were detected after H2O2 exposure. Increased concentrations of caspase-3 and cathepsin-D proteases and components of the 26S proteasome were also detected in H-PSCs. Reduction of lamin-B and other caspase-substrate, such as filamin, in H-PSCs suggested that molecular events related to early apoptosis were also induced. We present data that describe proteins expressed in response to oxidative stress in a metazoan parasite, including novel antioxidant enzymes and targets with potential application to treatment and prevention of CHD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martín Cancela
- Laboratório de Genômica Estrutural e Funcional, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil. .,Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Cestódeos, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil. .,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
| | - Jéssica A Paes
- Laboratório de Genômica Estrutural e Funcional, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Hercules Moura
- Biological Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Clinical Chemistry Branch, Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - John R Barr
- Biological Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Clinical Chemistry Branch, Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Arnaldo Zaha
- Laboratório de Genômica Estrutural e Funcional, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Cestódeos, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Departamento de Biologia Molecular e Biotecnologia, Instituto de Biociências, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Henrique B Ferreira
- Laboratório de Genômica Estrutural e Funcional, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil. .,Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Cestódeos, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil. .,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil. .,Departamento de Biologia Molecular e Biotecnologia, Instituto de Biociências, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Kim MA, Markkandan K, Han NY, Park JM, Lee JS, Lee H, Sohn YC. Neural Ganglia Transcriptome and Peptidome Associated with Sexual Maturation in Female Pacific Abalone ( Haliotis discus hannai). Genes (Basel) 2019; 10:genes10040268. [PMID: 30987054 PMCID: PMC6523705 DOI: 10.3390/genes10040268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic information of reproduction and growth is essential for sustainable molluscan fisheries and aquaculture management. However, there is limited knowledge regarding the reproductive activity of the commercially important Pacific abalone Haliotisdiscushannai. We performed de novo transcriptome sequencing of the ganglia in sexually immature and mature female Pacific abalone to better understand the sexual maturation process and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Of the ~305 million high-quality clean reads, 76,684 transcripts were de novo-assembled with an average length of 741 bp, 28.54% of which were annotated and classified according to Gene Ontology terms. There were 256 differentially expressed genes between the immature and mature abalone. Tandem mass spectrometry analysis, as compared to the predicted-peptide database of abalone ganglia transcriptome unigenes, identified 42 neuropeptide precursors, including 29 validated by peptidomic analyses. Label-free quantification revealed differential occurrences of 18 neuropeptide families between immature and mature abalone, including achatin, FMRFamide, crustacean cardioactive peptide, and pedal peptide A and B that were significantly more frequent at the mature stage. These results represent the first significant contribution to both maturation-related transcriptomic and peptidomic resources of the Pacific abalone ganglia and provide insight into the roles of various neuropeptides in reproductive regulation in marine gastropods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mi Ae Kim
- Department of Marine Molecular Bioscience, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung 25457, Korea.
- The East Coast Research Institute of Life Science, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung 25457, Korea.
| | | | - Na-Young Han
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21936, Korea.
| | - Jong-Moon Park
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21936, Korea.
| | - Jung Sick Lee
- Department of Aqualife Medicine, Chonnam National University, Yeosu 59626, Korea.
| | - Hookeun Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21936, Korea.
| | - Young Chang Sohn
- Department of Marine Molecular Bioscience, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung 25457, Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Kim JG, Ahn CS, Sripa B, Eom K, Kang I, Sohn WM, Nawa Y, Kong Y. Clonorchis sinensis omega-class glutathione transferases are reliable biomarkers for serodiagnosis of clonorchiasis and opisthorchiasis. Clin Microbiol Infect 2019; 25:109.e1-109.e6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2018.03.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 03/25/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
|
16
|
Ahmed S, Sohail A, Khatoon S, Khan S, Saifullah MK. Partial purification and characterization of glutathione S-transferase from the somatic tissue of Gastrothylax crumenifer (Trematoda: Digenea). Vet World 2017; 10:1493-1500. [PMID: 29391692 PMCID: PMC5771176 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2017.1493-1500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Aim of the present study was to carry out the partial purification and biochemical characterization of glutathione S-transferase (GST) from the somatic tissue of ruminal amphistome parasite, Gastrothylax crumenifer (Gc) infecting Indian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). MATERIALS AND METHODS The crude somatic homogenate of Gc was subjected to progressive ammonium sulfate precipitation followed by size exclusion chromatography in a Sephacryl S 100-HR column. The partially purified GST was assayed spectrophotometrically, and the corresponding enzyme activity was also recorded in polyacrylamide gel. GST isolated from the amphistome parasite was also exposed to variable changes in temperature and the pH gradient of the assay mixture. RESULTS The precipitated amphistome GST molecules showed maximum activity in the sixth elution fraction. The GST subunit appeared as a single band in the reducing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with an apparent molecular weight of 26 kDa. The GST proteins were found to be fairly stable up to 37°C, beyond this the activity got heavily impaired. Further, the GST obtained showed a pH optima of 7.5. CONCLUSION Present findings showed that GST from Gc could be conveniently purified using gel filtration chromatography. The purified enzyme showed maximum stability and activity at 4°C.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sakil Ahmed
- Section of Parasitology, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Aamir Sohail
- Department of Biochemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Sabiha Khatoon
- Section of Parasitology, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Shabnam Khan
- Section of Parasitology, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Mohammad Khalid Saifullah
- Section of Parasitology, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Zhou L, Shi M, Zhao L, Lin Z, Tang Z, Sun H, Chen T, Lv Z, Xu J, Huang Y, Yu X. Clonorchis sinensis lysophospholipase A upregulates IL-25 expression in macrophages as a potential pathway to liver fibrosis. Parasit Vectors 2017. [PMID: 28623940 PMCID: PMC5474055 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2228-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Liver fibrosis is an excessive wound-healing reaction that requires the participation of inflammatory cells and hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). The pathogenesis of liver fibrosis caused by viruses and alcohol has been well characterized, but the molecular mechanisms underlying liver fibrosis induced by the liver fluke Clonorchis sinensis are poorly understood. Lysophospholipase A (LysoPLA), which deacylates lysophospholipids, plays a critical role in mediating the virulence and pathogenesis of parasites and fungi; however, the roles of C. sinensis lysophospholipase A (CsLysoPLA) in C. sinensis-induced liver fibrosis remain unknown. Methods A mouse macrophage cell line (RAW264.7) was cultured and treated with CsLysoPLA. IL-25 and members of its associated signaling pathway were detected by performing quantitative real-time PCR, Western blotting and immunofluorescent staining. A human hepatic stellate cell line (LX-2) was cultured and exposed to IL-25. LX-2 cell activation markers were examined via quantitative real-time PCR, Western blotting and immunofluorescent staining. Migration was analyzed in transwell plates. Results Treating RAW264.7 cells with CsLysoPLA significantly induced IL-25 expression. Elevated PKA, B-Raf, and ERK1/2 mRNA levels and phosphorylated B-Raf and ERK1/2 were detected in CsLysoPLA-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. The PKA inhibitor H-89 weakened B-Raf and ERK1/2 phosphorylation whereas the AKT activator SC79 attenuated ERK1/2 phosphorylation in RAW264.7 cells. Both H-89 and SC79 inhibited CsLysoPLA-induced IL-25 upregulation. In addition, stimulation of LX-2 cells with IL-25 upregulated the expression of mesenchymal cell markers, including α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen type I (Collagen-I), and promoted cell migration. Conclusions CsLysoPLA activates HSCs by upregulating IL-25 in macrophages through the PKA-dependent B-Raf/ERK1/2 pathway and potentially promotes hepatic fibrosis during C. sinensis infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lina Zhou
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Mengchen Shi
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Lu Zhao
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhipeng Lin
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zeli Tang
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Hengchang Sun
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Tingjin Chen
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiyue Lv
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jin Xu
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yan Huang
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China. .,Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| | - Xinbing Yu
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China. .,Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| |
Collapse
|