MMP-2 is a novel histone H3 N-terminal protease necessary for myogenic gene activation

Histon activities in the extracellular environment: regulation and prothrombotic implications

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Thromboembolic complications are a major contributor to global mortality. The relationship between inflammation and coagulation pathways has become an emerging research topic where the role of the innate immune response, and specifically neutrophils in "immunothrombosis" are receiving much attention. This review aims to dissect the intricate interplay between histones (from neutrophils or cellular damage) and the haemostatic pathway, and to explore mechanisms that may counteract the potentially procoagulant effects of those histones that have escaped their nuclear localization.

RECENT FINDINGS

Extracellular histones exert procoagulant effects via endothelial damage, platelet activation, and direct interaction with coagulation proteins. Neutralization of histone activities can be achieved by complexation with physiological molecules, through pharmacological compounds, or via proteolytic degradation. Details of neutralization of extracellular histones are still being studied.

SUMMARY

Leveraging the understanding of extracellular histone neutralization will pave the way for development of novel pharmacological interventions to treat and prevent complications, including thromboembolism, in patients in whom extracellular histones contribute to their overall clinical status.

Loss of cohesin regulator PDS5A reveals repressive role of Polycomb loops

Polycomb Repressive Complexes 1 and 2 (PRC1, PRC2) are conserved epigenetic regulators that promote transcriptional gene silencing. PRC1 and PRC2 converge on shared targets, catalyzing repressive histone modifications. Additionally, a subset of PRC1/PRC2 targets engage in long-range interactions whose functions in gene silencing are poorly understood. Using a CRISPR screen in mouse embryonic stem cells, we found that the cohesin regulator PDS5A links transcriptional silencing by Polycomb and 3D genome organization. PDS5A deletion impairs cohesin unloading and results in derepression of a subset of endogenous PRC1/PRC2 target genes. Importantly, derepression is not linked to loss of Polycomb chromatin domains. Instead, PDS5A removal causes aberrant cohesin activity leading to ectopic insulation sites, which disrupt the formation of ultra-long Polycomb loops. We show that these loops are important for robust silencing at a subset of PRC1/PRC2 target genes and that maintenance of cohesin-dependent genome architecture is critical for Polycomb regulation.

Contributions of histone tail clipping and acetylation in nucleosome transcription by RNA polymerase II

The N-terminal tails of histones protrude from the nucleosome core and are target sites for histone modifications, such as acetylation and methylation. Histone acetylation is considered to enhance transcription in chromatin. However, the contribution of the histone N-terminal tail to the nucleosome transcription by RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) has not been clarified. In the present study, we reconstituted nucleosomes lacking the N-terminal tail of each histone, H2A, H2B, H3 or H4, and performed RNAPII transcription assays. We found that the N-terminal tail of H3, but not H2A, H2B and H4, functions in RNAPII pausing at the SHL(-5) position of the nucleosome. Consistently, the RNAPII transcription assay also revealed that the nucleosome containing N-terminally acetylated H3 drastically alleviates RNAPII pausing at the SHL(-5) position. In addition, the H3 acetylated nucleosome produced increased amounts of the run-off transcript. These results provide important evidence that the H3 N-terminal tail plays a role in RNAPII pausing at the SHL(-5) position of the nucleosome, and its acetylation directly alleviates this nucleosome barrier.

The MMP-2 histone H3 N-terminal tail protease is selectively targeted to the transcription start sites of active genes

BACKGROUND

Proteolysis of the histone H3 N-terminal tail (H3NT) is an evolutionarily conserved epigenomic feature of nearly all eukaryotes, generating a cleaved H3 product that is retained in ~ 5-10% of the genome. Although H3NT proteolysis within chromatin was first reported over 60 years ago, the genomic sites targeted for H3NT proteolysis and the impact of this histone modification on chromatin structure and function remain largely unknown. The goal of this study was to identify the specific regions targeted for H3NT proteolysis and investigate the consequence of H3NT "clipping" on local histone post-translational modification (PTM) dynamics.

RESULTS

Leveraging recent findings that matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) functions as the principal nuclear H3NT protease in the human U2OS osteosarcoma cell line, a ChIP-Seq approach was used to map MMP-2 localization genome wide. The results indicate that MMP-2 is selectively targeted to the transcription start sites (TSSs) of protein coding genes, primarily at the + 1 nucleosome. MMP-2 localization was exclusive to highly expressed genes, further supporting a functional role for H3NT proteolysis in transcriptional regulation. MMP-2 dependent H3NT proteolysis at the TSSs of these genes resulted in a > twofold reduction of activation-associated histone H3 PTMs, including H3K4me3, H3K9ac and H3K18ac. One of genes requiring MMP-2 mediated H3NT proteolysis for proficient expression was the lysosomal cathepsin B protease (CTSB), which we discovered functions as a secondary nuclear H3NT protease in U2OS cells.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed that the MMP-2 H3NT protease is selectively targeted to the TSSs of active protein coding genes in U2OS cells. The resulting H3NT proteolysis directly alters local histone H3 PTM patterns at TSSs, which likely functions to regulate transcription. MMP-2 mediated H3NT proteolysis directly activates CTSB, a secondary H3NT protease that generates additional cleaved H3 products within chromatin.

The micronuclear histone H3 clipping in the unicellular eukaryote Tetrahymena thermophila

Clipping of the histone H3 N-terminal tail has been implicated in multiple fundamental biological processes for a growing list of eukaryotes. H3 clipping, serving as an irreversible process to permanently remove some post-translational modifications (PTMs), may lead to noticeable changes in chromatin dynamics or gene expression. The eukaryotic model organism Tetrahymena thermophila is among the first few eukaryotes that exhibits H3 clipping activity, wherein the first six amino acids of H3 are cleaved off during vegetative growth. Clipping only occurs in the transcriptionally silent micronucleus of the binucleated T. thermophila, thus offering a unique opportunity to reveal the role of H3 clipping in epigenetic regulation. However, the physiological functions of the truncated H3 and its protease(s) for clipping remain elusive. Here, we review the major findings of H3 clipping in T. thermophila and highlight its association with histone modifications and cell cycle regulation. We also summarize the functions and mechanisms of H3 clipping in other eukaryotes, focusing on the high diversity in terms of protease families and cleavage sites. Finally, we predict several protease candidates in T. thermophila and provide insights for future studies.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42995-022-00151-0.

Reconstruction and Differential Expression Profiling Core Target Analyses of the circRNA-miRNA-mRNA Network Based on Competitive Endogenous RNAs in Ulcerative Colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a common autoimmune disease worldwide. Circular RNA (circRNA) is a type of noncoding ribonucleic acids (ncRNAs). In addition to their roles in numerous biological processes, circRNAs are also linked to a vast range of diseases including UC. Although previous studies have examined many circRNAs, the physiological and pathological roles of the circRNA-associated competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network in UC remain unclear. Thus, we constructed a circRNA-miRNA-mRNA network based on the ceRNA hypothesis by analyzing data from the National Center for Biotechnology Information Gene Expression Omnibus (NCBI-GEO) database. Genes with higher degree values than others in the ceRNA network were selected as central nodes when constructing the corresponding core subnetworks. To fully understand the biological function of the ceRNA network, we entered all differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRNAs) from the ceRNA network into the Database for Annotation and Integrated Discovery (DAVID), which was used to perform Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses. We further entered DEmRNAs into the STRING database for protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis. The results elucidated that the ceRNA network comprised 403 circRNA nodes, 5 miRNA nodes, 138 mRNA nodes, and 559 edges. Three core ceRNA subnetworks centered on hsa-miR-342-3p, hsa-miR-199a-5p, and hsa-miR-142-3p were reconstructed in this study. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses identified 167 enriched GO categories and 14 enriched KEGG pathway terms. The core PPI network was composed of 15 core targets, of which CD44, HIF1A, and MMP2 were the most significant. In summary, 3 hub miRNAs (hsa-miR-342-3p, hsa-miR-199a-5p, hsa-miR-142-3p) and 3 hub genes (CD44, HIF1A, and MMP2) might play an important role in the development of UC. These hub nodes, first proposed here, might also be used as potential diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets.

Identification of MMP9 as a Novel Biomarker to Mitochondrial Metabolism Disorder and Oxidative Stress in Calcific Aortic Valve Stenosis

Calcific aortic valve stenosis (CAVS) is the most common heart valve disorder among humans. To date, no effective method has been identified to prevent this disease. Herein, we aimed to identify novel diagnostic and mitochondria-related biomarkers of CAVS, based on two machine learning algorithms. We further explored their association with infiltrating immune cells and studied their potential function in CAVS. The GSE12644, GSE51472, and GSE83453 expression profiles were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) repository. The GSE12644 and GSE51472 datasets were integrated to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). GSE12644 contains 10 normal and 10 CAVS samples, whereas GSE51472 contains 5 normal and 10 CAVS samples. GO and KEGG assays of DEGs were conducted, and the correlation between matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) expression and immune cell infiltration was explored, using CIBERSORT. The LASSO regression model and SVM-RFE analysis were used to identify diagnostic genes. The expression of MMP9 in CAVS and non-CAVS samples was measured using RT-PCR, western blotting and immunohistochemistry. A series of functional experiments were performed to explore the potential role of MMP9 in mitochondrial metabolism and oxidative stress during CAVS progression. Twenty-two DEGs were identified, of which six genes (SCG2, PPBP, TREM1, CCL19, WIF1, and MMP9) were ultimately distinguished as diagnostic genes in CAVS. Of these, MMP9 was indicated as a mitochondria-related gene, the expression and diagnostic value of which were further confirmed in the GSE83453 dataset. Correlation analysis revealed a positive correlation between MMP9 and infiltrating immune cells. In our cohort, MMP9 expression was distinctly increased in CAVS samples, and its inhibition attenuated the calcification of valve interstitial cells (VICs) by suppressing mitochondrial damage and oxidative stress. Taken together, our findings suggest MMP9 as a novel mitochondrial dysfunction biomarker and therapeutic target for CAVS.

MMP-9 drives the melanomagenic transcription program through histone H3 tail proteolysis

Melanoma is a type of skin cancer that develops in pigment-producing melanocytes and often spreads to other parts of the body. Aberrant gene expression has been considered as a crucial step for increasing the risk of melanomagenesis, but how chromatin reorganization contributes to this pathogenic process is still not well understood. Here we report that matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) localizes to the nucleus of melanoma cells and potentiates gene expression by proteolytically clipping the histone H3 N-terminal tail (H3NT). From genome-wide studies, we discovered that growth-regulatory genes are selectively targeted and activated by MMP-9-dependent H3NT proteolysis in melanoma cells. MMP-9 cooperates functionally with p300/CBP because MMP-9 cleaves H3NT in a manner that is dependent on p300/CBP-mediated acetylation of H3K18. The functional significance of MMP-9-dependent H3NT proteolysis is further underscored by the fact that RNAi knockdown and small-molecule inhibition of MMP-9 and p300/CBP impede melanomagenic gene expression and melanoma tumor growth. Together, our data establish new functions and mechanisms for nuclear MMP-9 in promoting melanomagenesis and demonstrate how MMP-9-dependent H3NT proteolysis can be exploited to prevent and treat melanoma skin cancer.