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Shi M, Chu F, Tian X, Aerqin Q, Zhu F, Zhu J. Role of Adaptive Immune and Impacts of Risk Factors on Adaptive Immune in Alzheimer's Disease: Are Immunotherapies Effective or Off-Target? Neuroscientist 2021; 28:254-270. [PMID: 33530843 DOI: 10.1177/1073858420987224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is complex. Still it remains unclear, which resulted in all efforts for AD treatments with targeting the pathogenic factors unsuccessful over past decades. It has been evidenced that the innate immune is strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of AD. However, the role of adaptive immune in AD remains mostly unknown and the results obtained were controversial. In the review, we summarized recent studies and showed that the molecular and cellular alterations in AD patients and its animal models involving T cells and B cells as well as immune mediators of adaptive immune occur not only in the peripheral blood but also in the brain and the cerebrospinal fluid. The risk factors that cause AD contribute to AD progress by affecting the adaptive immune, indicating that adaptive immunity proposes a pivotal role in this disease. It may provide a possible basis for applying immunotherapy in AD and further investigates whether the immunotherapies are effective or off-target?
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingchao Shi
- Neuroscience Center, Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China.,Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences & Society, Division of Neurogeriatrcs, Karolinska Institute, Karolinska University Hospital Solna, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Fengna Chu
- Neuroscience Center, Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China.,Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences & Society, Division of Neurogeriatrcs, Karolinska Institute, Karolinska University Hospital Solna, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Xiaoping Tian
- Cognitive Impairment Ward of Neurology Department, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University Medical College, Shenzhen, China
| | - Qiaolifan Aerqin
- Neuroscience Center, Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Feiqi Zhu
- Cognitive Impairment Ward of Neurology Department, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University Medical College, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jie Zhu
- Neuroscience Center, Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China.,Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences & Society, Division of Neurogeriatrcs, Karolinska Institute, Karolinska University Hospital Solna, Stockholm, Sweden
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Kabir MT, Uddin MS, Mathew B, Das PK, Perveen A, Ashraf GM. Emerging Promise of Immunotherapy for Alzheimer's Disease: A New Hope for the Development of Alzheimer's Vaccine. Curr Top Med Chem 2021; 20:1214-1234. [PMID: 32321405 DOI: 10.2174/1568026620666200422105156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder and the characteristics of this devastating disorder include the progressive and disabling deficits in the cognitive functions including reasoning, attention, judgment, comprehension, memory, and language. OBJECTIVE In this article, we have focused on the recent progress that has been achieved in the development of an effective AD vaccine. SUMMARY Currently, available treatment options of AD are limited to deliver short-term symptomatic relief only. A number of strategies targeting amyloid-beta (Aβ) have been developed in order to treat or prevent AD. In order to exert an effective immune response, an AD vaccine should contain adjuvants that can induce an effective anti-inflammatory T helper 2 (Th2) immune response. AD vaccines should also possess the immunogens which have the capacity to stimulate a protective immune response against various cytotoxic Aβ conformers. The induction of an effective vaccine's immune response would necessitate the parallel delivery of immunogen to dendritic cells (DCs) and their priming to stimulate a Th2-polarized response. The aforesaid immune response is likely to mediate the generation of neutralizing antibodies against the neurotoxic Aβ oligomers (AβOs) and also anti-inflammatory cytokines, thus preventing the AD-related inflammation. CONCLUSION Since there is an age-related decline in the immune functions, therefore vaccines are more likely to prevent AD instead of providing treatment. AD vaccines might be an effective and convenient approach to avoid the treatment-related huge expense.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Md Sahab Uddin
- Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.,Pharmakon Neuroscience Research Network, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Bijo Mathew
- Division of Drug Design and Medicinal Chemistry Research Lab, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Ahalia School of Pharmacy, Palakkad, India
| | | | - Asma Perveen
- Glocal School of Life Sciences, Glocal University, Saharanpur, India
| | - Ghulam Md Ashraf
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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Zhang Z, Wang X, Zhang D, Liu Y, Li L. Geniposide-mediated protection against amyloid deposition and behavioral impairment correlates with downregulation of mTOR signaling and enhanced autophagy in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 11:536-548. [PMID: 30684442 PMCID: PMC6366989 DOI: 10.18632/aging.101759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Geniposide, an iridoid glycoside extract from the gardenia fruit, is used in traditional Chinese medicine to alleviate symptoms of liver and inflammatory diseases. Geniposide activates GLP-1 receptors, known to modulate the activity of mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), a key kinase regulating energy balance, proliferation, and survival in cells. mTOR activation inhibits autophagy, which is often disrupted in age-related diseases. Modulation of mTOR function to increase autophagy and inhibit apoptosis is involved in the protective effects of pharmacologic agents targeting diabetes and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). We investigated whether such mechanism could mediate geniposide’s neuroprotective effects in the APP/PS1 mouse model of AD. Eight-week treatment with geniposide improved cognitive scores in behavioral tests, reduced amyloid-β 1-40 plaque deposition, and reduced soluble Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 levels in the APP/PS1 mouse brain.This also showed increased p-Akt/Akt, p-mTOR/mTOR and decreased p-4E-BP1/4E-BP1 expression, and these patterns were partially reversed by geniposide. Evidence for enhanced autophagy, denoted by increased expression of LC3-II and Beclin1, was also seen after treatment with geniposide. Our data suggests that down regulation of mTOR signaling, leading to enhanced autophagy and lysosomal clearance of Aβ fibrils, underlies the beneficial effects of geniposide against neuropathological damage and cognitive deficits characteristic of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihua Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, PR China.,Shanxi Medical College for Continuing Education, Taiyuan, Shanxi, PR China
| | - Xiaojian Wang
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, PR China.,Shanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Taiyuan, Shanxi, PR China
| | - Di Zhang
- Chemistry Department, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, PR China
| | - Yueze Liu
- Second Hospital, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, PR China
| | - Lin Li
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, PR China
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Yu XL, Zhu J, Liu XM, Xu PX, Zhang Y, Liu RT. Vaccines targeting the primary amino acid sequence and conformational epitope of amyloid-β had distinct effects on neuropathology and cognitive deficits in EAE/AD mice. Br J Pharmacol 2020; 177:2860-2871. [PMID: 32034757 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Immunotherapeutic intervention is one of the most promising strategies for the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although they showed great success in AD mouse models, the clinical trials of many immune approaches failed due to low efficacy and safety. Thus, an animal model which can show the potential side effects of vaccines or antibodies is urgently needed. In this study, we generated EAE/AD mice by crossing APP/PS1 mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mice. We then investigated the efficacy and safety of two vaccines: the immunogens of which were Aβ1-42 aggregates (Aβ42 vaccine) and an oligomer-specific conformational epitope (AOE1 vaccine), respectively. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH EAE/AD mice were immunized with the Aβ42 vaccine or AOE1 vaccine five times at biweekly intervals. After the final immunization, cognitive function was evaluated by the Morris water maze, Y maze, and object recognition tests. Neuropathological changes in the mouse brains were analysed by immunohistochemistry and ELISA. KEY RESULTS In contrast to previous findings in conventional AD animal models, Aβ42 immunization promoted neuroinflammation, enhanced Aβ levels and plaque burden, and failed to restore cognitive deficits in EAE/AD mice. By contrast, AOE1 immunization dramatically attenuated neuroinflammation, reduced Aβ levels, and improved cognitive performance in EAE/AD mice. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS These results suggest that the EAE/AD mouse model can exhibit the potential side effects of AD immune approaches that conventional AD animal models fail to display. Furthermore, strategies specifically targeting Aβ oligomers may be safe and show clinical benefit for AD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Lin Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiang-Meng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Peng-Xin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Rui-Tian Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Marciani DJ. Promising Results from Alzheimer's Disease Passive Immunotherapy Support the Development of a Preventive Vaccine. RESEARCH 2019; 2019:5341375. [PMID: 31549066 PMCID: PMC6750119 DOI: 10.34133/2019/5341375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The apparently near-term effects of the monoclonal antibody BAN2401 in slowing the progression of prodromal Alzheimer's disease (AD) has created cautious optimism about the therapeutic use of antibodies that neutralize cytotoxic soluble amyloid-β aggregates, rather than removing plaque. Plaque being protective, as it immobilizes cytotoxic amyloid-β, rather than AD's causative agent. The presence of natural antibodies against cytotoxic amyloid-β implies the existence of a protective anti-AD immunity. Hence, for vaccines to induce a similar immunoresponse that prevents and/or delays the onset of AD, they must have adjuvants that stimulate a sole anti-inflammatory Th2 immunity, plus immunogens that induce a protective immunoresponse against diverse cytotoxic amyloid-β conformers. Indeed, amyloid-β pleomorphism may explain the lack of long-term protection by monoclonal antibodies that neutralize single conformers, like aducanumab. A situation that would allow new cytotoxic conformers to escape neutralization by previously effective monoclonal antibodies. Stimulation of a vaccine's effective immunoresponse would require the concurrent delivery of immunogen to dendritic cells and their priming, to induce a polarized Th2 immunity. An immunoresponse that would produce besides neutralizing antibodies against neurotoxic amyloid-β oligomers, anti-inflammatory cytokines; preventing inflammation that aggravates AD. Because of age-linked immune decline, vaccines would be significantly more effective in preventing, rather than treating AD. Considering the amyloid-β's role in tau's pathological hyperphosphorylation and their synergism in AD, the development of preventive vaccines against both amyloid-β and tau should be considered. Due to convenience and cost, vaccines may be the only option available to many countries to forestall the impending AD epidemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Marciani
- Qantu Therapeutics, Inc., 612 E. Main Street, Lewisville, TX 75057, USA
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Protective Effects of 1-Methylnicotinamide on Aβ1–42-Induced Cognitive Deficits, Neuroinflammation and Apoptosis in Mice. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2019; 14:401-412. [DOI: 10.1007/s11481-018-09830-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Huang YR, Xie XX, Ji M, Yu XL, Zhu J, Zhang LX, Liu XG, Wei C, Li G, Liu RT. Naturally occurring autoantibodies against α-synuclein rescues memory and motor deficits and attenuates α-synuclein pathology in mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2018; 124:202-217. [PMID: 30481547 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been suggested that aggregation of α-synuclein (α-syn) into oligomers leads to neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD), but intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) which contains antibodies against α-syn monomers and oligomers fails to treat PD mouse model. The reason may be because IVIG contains much low level of antibodies against α-syn, and of which only a small part can penetrate the blood-brain barrier, resulting in an extremely low level of effective antibodies in the brain, and limiting the beneficial effect of IVIG on PD mice. Here, we first isolated naturally occurring autoantibodies against α-syn (NAbs-α-syn) from IVIG. Our further investigation results showed that NAbs-α-syn inhibited α-syn aggregation and attenuated α-syn-induced cytotoxicity in vitro. Compared with vehicles, NAbs-α-syn significantly attenuated the memory and motor deficits by reducing the levels of soluble α-syn, total human α-syn and α-syn oligomers, decreasing the intracellular p-α-synser129 deposits and axonal pathology, inhibiting the microgliosis and astrogliosis, as well as the production of proinflammatory cytokines, increasing the levels of PSD95, synaptophysin and TH in the brain of A53T transgenic mice. These findings suggest that NAbs-α-syn overcomes the deficiency of IVIG and exhibits a promising therapeutic potential for the treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Ru Huang
- National Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haidian District, Beijing 100190, China; School of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xi-Xiu Xie
- National Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haidian District, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Mei Ji
- National Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haidian District, Beijing 100190, China; School of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiao-Lin Yu
- National Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haidian District, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Jie Zhu
- National Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haidian District, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Ling-Xiao Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haidian District, Beijing 100190, China; School of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiao-Ge Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haidian District, Beijing 100190, China; School of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Chen Wei
- National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Gang Li
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430022, China.
| | - Rui-Tian Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haidian District, Beijing 100190, China.
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