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Borba JV, Canzian J, Resmim CM, Silva RM, Duarte MCF, Mohammed KA, Schoenau W, Adedara IA, Rosemberg DB. Towards zebrafish models to unravel translational insights of obsessive-compulsive disorder: A neurobehavioral perspective. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 162:105715. [PMID: 38734195 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a chronic and debilitating illness that has been considered a polygenic and multifactorial disorder, challenging effective therapeutic interventions. Although invaluable advances have been obtained from human and rodent studies, several molecular and mechanistic aspects of OCD etiology are still obscure. Thus, the use of non-traditional animal models may foster innovative approaches in this field, aiming to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of disease from an evolutionary perspective. The zebrafish (Danio rerio) has been increasingly considered a powerful organism in translational neuroscience research, especially due to the intrinsic features of the species. Here, we outline target mechanisms of OCD for translational research, and discuss how zebrafish-based models can contribute to explore neurobehavioral aspects resembling those found in OCD. We also identify possible advantages and limitations of potential zebrafish-based models, as well as highlight future directions in both etiological and therapeutic research. Lastly, we reinforce the use of zebrafish as a promising tool to unravel the biological basis of OCD, as well as novel pharmacological therapies in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- João V Borba
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil.
| | - Julia Canzian
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Cássio M Resmim
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Rossano M Silva
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Maria C F Duarte
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Khadija A Mohammed
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - William Schoenau
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Isaac A Adedara
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Drug Metabolism and Toxicology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Denis B Rosemberg
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), 309 Palmer Court, Slidell, LA 70458, USA.
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Pappert FA, Dubin A, Torres GG, Roth O. Navigating sex and sex roles: deciphering sex-biased gene expression in a species with sex-role reversal ( Syngnathus typhle). ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 11:rsos.231620. [PMID: 38577217 PMCID: PMC10987989 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.231620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Sexual dimorphism, the divergence in morphological traits between males and females of the same species, is often accompanied by sex-biased gene expression. However, the majority of research has focused on species with conventional sex roles, where females have the highest energy burden with both egg production and parental care, neglecting the diversity of reproductive roles found in nature. We investigated sex-biased gene expression in Syngnathus typhle, a sex-role reversed species with male pregnancy, allowing us to separate two female traits: egg production and parental care. Using RNA sequencing, we examined gene expression across organs (brain, head kidney and gonads) at various life stages, encompassing differences in age, sex and reproductive status. While some gene groups were more strongly associated with sex roles, such as stress resistance and immune defence, others were driven by biological sex, such as energy and lipid storage regulation in an organ- and age-specific manner. By investigating how genes regulate and are regulated by changing reproductive roles and resource allocation in a model system with an unconventional life-history strategy, we aim to better understand the importance of sex and sex role in regulating gene expression patterns, broadening the scope of this discussion to encompass a wide range of organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freya A. Pappert
- Marine Evolutionary Biology, Zoological Institute, Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, Kiel24118, Germany
- Evolutionary Ecology of Marine Fishes, Helmholtz-Centre for Ocean Research Kiel (GEOMAR), Kiel24105, Germany
| | - Arseny Dubin
- Marine Evolutionary Biology, Zoological Institute, Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, Kiel24118, Germany
| | - Guillermo G. Torres
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (IKMB), University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel University, Kiel24105, Germany
| | - Olivia Roth
- Marine Evolutionary Biology, Zoological Institute, Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, Kiel24118, Germany
- Evolutionary Ecology of Marine Fishes, Helmholtz-Centre for Ocean Research Kiel (GEOMAR), Kiel24105, Germany
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Parker CG, Gruenhagen GW, Hegarty BE, Histed AR, Streelman JT, Rhodes JS, Johnson ZV. Adult sex change leads to extensive forebrain reorganization in clownfish. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.29.577753. [PMID: 38352560 PMCID: PMC10862741 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.29.577753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Sexual differentiation of the brain occurs in all major vertebrate lineages but is not well understood at a molecular and cellular level. Unlike most vertebrates, sex-changing fishes have the remarkable ability to change reproductive sex during adulthood in response to social stimuli, offering a unique opportunity to understand mechanisms by which the nervous system can initiate and coordinate sexual differentiation. This study explores sexual differentiation of the forebrain using single nucleus RNA-sequencing in the anemonefish Amphiprion ocellaris, producing the first cellular atlas of a sex-changing brain. We uncover extensive sex differences in cell type-specific gene expression, relative proportions of cells, baseline neuronal excitation, and predicted inter-neuronal communication. Additionally, we identify the cholecystokinin, galanin, and estrogen systems as central molecular axes of sexual differentiation. Supported by these findings, we propose a model of neurosexual differentiation in the conserved vertebrate social decision-making network spanning multiple subtypes of neurons and glia, including neuronal subpopulations within the preoptic area that are positioned to regulate gonadal differentiation. This work deepens our understanding of sexual differentiation in the vertebrate brain and defines a rich suite of molecular and cellular pathways that differentiate during adult sex change in anemonefish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coltan G. Parker
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - George W. Gruenhagen
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Brianna E. Hegarty
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Abigail R. Histed
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Jeffrey T. Streelman
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Justin S. Rhodes
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Zachary V. Johnson
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Costa FV, Zabegalov KN, Kolesnikova TO, de Abreu MS, Kotova MM, Petersen EV, Kalueff AV. Experimental models of human cortical malformations: from mammals to 'acortical' zebrafish. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 155:105429. [PMID: 37863278 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/22/2023]
Abstract
Human neocortex controls and integrates cognition, emotions, perception and complex behaviors. Aberrant cortical development can be triggered by multiple genetic and environmental factors, causing cortical malformations. Animal models, especially rodents, are a valuable tool to probe molecular and physiological mechanisms of cortical malformations. Complementing rodent studies, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) is an important model organism in biomedicine. Although the zebrafish (like other fishes) lacks neocortex, here we argue that this species can still be used to model various aspects and brain phenomena related to human cortical malformations. We also discuss novel perspectives in this field, covering both advantages and limitations of using mammalian and zebrafish models in cortical malformation research. Summarizing mounting evidence, we also highlight the importance of translationally-relevant insights into the pathogenesis of cortical malformations from animal models, and discuss future strategies of research in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiano V Costa
- World-class Research Center "Center for Personalized Medicine", Almazov National Medical Research Center, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg, Russia; Neurobiology Program, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sirius Federal Territory, Russia
| | - Konstantin N Zabegalov
- Neurobiology Program, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sirius Federal Territory, Russia
| | - Tatiana O Kolesnikova
- World-class Research Center "Center for Personalized Medicine", Almazov National Medical Research Center, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg, Russia; Neurobiology Program, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sirius Federal Territory, Russia
| | | | - Maria M Kotova
- World-class Research Center "Center for Personalized Medicine", Almazov National Medical Research Center, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg, Russia; Neurobiology Program, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sirius Federal Territory, Russia
| | | | - Allan V Kalueff
- World-class Research Center "Center for Personalized Medicine", Almazov National Medical Research Center, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg, Russia; Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia; Institute of Experimental Medicine, Almazov National Medical Research Centre, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg, Russia; Laboratory of Preclinical Bioscreening, Granov Russian Research Center of Radiology and Surgical Technologies, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, Pesochny, Russia; Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg, Russia; Neurobiology Program, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sirius Federal Territory, Russia.
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5
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Gao J, Wang Y, Liu J, Chen F, Guo Y, Ke H, Wang X, Luo M, Fu S. Genome-wide association study reveals genomic loci of sex differentiation and gonadal development in Plectropomus leopardus. Front Genet 2023; 14:1229242. [PMID: 37645057 PMCID: PMC10461086 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2023.1229242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Plectropomus leopardus, a commercially significant marine fish, is primarily found in the Western Pacific regions and along the coast of Southeast Asia. A thorough analysis of the molecular mechanisms involved in sex differentiation is crucial for gaining a comprehensive understanding of gonadal development and improving sex control breeding. However, the relevant fundamental studies of P. leopardus are relatively lacking. Methods: In this study, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) was conducted to investigate the genetic basis mechanism of sex differentiation and gonadal developmental traits in P. leopardus utilizing about 6,850,000 high-quality single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) derived from 168 individuals (including 126 females and 42 males) by the genome-wide efficient mixed-model association (GEMMA) algorithm. Results: The results of these single-trait GWASs showed that 46 SNP loci (-log10 p > 7) significantly associated with sex differentiation, and gonadal development traits were distributed in multiple different chromosomes, which suggested the analyzed traits were all complex traits under multi-locus control. A total of 1,838 potential candidate genes were obtained by considering a less-stringent threshold (-log10 p > 6) and ±100 kb regions surrounding the significant genomic loci. Moreover, 31 candidate genes were identified through a comprehensive analysis of significant GWAS peaks, gene ontology (GO) annotations, and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses, including taf7, ddx6, apoeb, sgk1, a2m, usf1, hsd3b7, dll4, xbp1, tet3, esr1, and gli3. These trait-associated genes have been shown to be involved in germline development, male sex differentiation, gonad morphogenesis, hormone receptor binding, oocyte development, male gonad development, steroidogenesis, estrogen-synthetic pathway, etc. Discussion: In the present study, multiple genomic loci of P. leopardus associated with sex differentiation and gonadal development traits were identified for the first time by using GWAS, providing a valuable resource for further research on the molecular genetic mechanism and sex control in P. leopardus. Our results also can contribute to understanding the genetic basis of the sex differentiation mechanism and gonadal development process in grouper fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Gao
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou, China
- Hainan Tropical Ocean University Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, Sanya, China
| | - Yongbo Wang
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou, China
- Hainan Tropical Ocean University Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, Sanya, China
| | - Jinye Liu
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou, China
- Hainan Provincial Engineering Research Center for Tropical Sea-Farming, Haikou, China
| | - Fuxiao Chen
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou, China
- Hainan Tropical Ocean University Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, Sanya, China
| | - Yilan Guo
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou, China
| | - Hongji Ke
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou, China
| | - Xulei Wang
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou, China
| | - Ming Luo
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou, China
| | - Shuyuan Fu
- Hainan Academy of Ocean and Fisheries Sciences, Haikou, China
- Hainan Tropical Ocean University Yazhou Bay Innovation Institute, Sanya, China
- Hainan Provincial Engineering Research Center for Tropical Sea-Farming, Haikou, China
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6
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Zhu Y, Song F, Gu J, Wu L, Wu W, Ji G. Paroxetine induced larva zebrafish cardiotoxicity through inflammation response. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 260:115096. [PMID: 37269614 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Paroxetine (PRX) is a common antidepressant drug which widely existence in natural environment. Numerous studies in the past few decades have focused on the beneficial effects of PRX on depression, however, the toxic properties and the potential mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, zebrafish embryos were exposed to 1.0, 5.0, 10 and 20 mg/L of PRX from 4 to 120-hour-post-fertilization (hpf), and it showed that PRX exposure caused adverse effects in zebrafish embryos, including decreased body length, blood flow velocity, cardiac frequency, cardiac output and increased burst activity and atria area. Meanwhile, the Tg (myl7: EGFP) and Tg (lyz: DsRed) transgenic zebrafish were used to detect the cardiotoxicity and inflammation response of PRX. Moreover, the heart development associated genes (vmhc, amhc, hand2, nkx2.5, ta, tbx6, tbx16 and tbx20) and inflammatory genes (IL-10, IL-1β, IL-8 and TNF-α) were up-regulated after PRX challenge. In addition, Aspirin was used to alleviate the PRX-induced heart development disorder. In conclusion, our study verified the PRX induced inflammatory related cardiotoxicity in larva zebrafish. Meanwhile, the current study shown the toxic effects of PRX in aquatic organism, and provide for the environmental safety of PRX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanhui Zhu
- Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China; Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Preventive and Translational Medicine for Geriatric Diseases, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, Jiangsu, China
| | - Feifei Song
- Department of Neurology, Zhongshan hospital, Fudan University, 20032 Shanghai, China
| | - Jie Gu
- Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China
| | - Linlin Wu
- Wuxi Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuxi 214023, China
| | - Wenzhu Wu
- Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China.
| | - Guixiang Ji
- Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China.
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Tantiwisawaruji S, Rocha MJ, Silva A, Pardal MA, Kovitvadhi U, Rocha E. A Stereological Study of the Three Types of Ganglia of Male, Female, and Undifferentiated Scrobicularia plana (Bivalvia). Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12172248. [PMID: 36077968 PMCID: PMC9454602 DOI: 10.3390/ani12172248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotransmitters modulate gonadal maturation in bivalves. However, it remains unclear whether there are differences in the nervous system structure between sexes, maturation, and ganglia. Therefore, a stereological study was conducted on the ganglia of adult peppery furrow shell (Scrobicularia plana). Equal-sized males, females, and undifferentiated (gamete absence) animals were fixed with 10% formalin and processed for light microscopy. They were serially cut into 35 µm paraffin thick sections and stained with hematoxylin-eosin. Sections with cerebral (cerebropleural), pedal, and visceral ganglia were studied. The parameters estimated were the volumes of the ganglia, the total and relative volumes of their cortex (outer layer) and medulla (neuropil), and the total number of cells (neurons, glia, and pigmented) per ganglia and compartment. The volumes and numbers were estimated, respectively, by the Cavalieri principle and by the optical fractionator. Females show a larger glia to neuron numerical ratio. Further, females have a greater ganglionic volume than undifferentiated adults, with males showing intermediate values. These facts indicate that the ganglia size is related somehow to maturation. The cell size forms the basis of the differences because total cellularity is equal among the groups. The three ganglion types differ in total volumes and the volume ratio of the cortex versus the medulla. The greater volumes of the pedal ganglia (vis-a-vis the cerebral ones) and of the visceral ganglia (in relation to all others) imply more voluminous cortexes and medullae, but more neuronal and non-neuronal cells only in the visceral. The new fundamental data can help interpret bivalve neurophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukanlaya Tantiwisawaruji
- Learning Institute, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok 10140, Thailand
- Laboratory of Histology and Embryology, Department of Microscopy, ICBAS—School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto (U.Porto), 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Histomorphology, Physiopathology and Applied Toxicology Group, CIIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto (U.Porto), 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Maria J. Rocha
- Laboratory of Histology and Embryology, Department of Microscopy, ICBAS—School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto (U.Porto), 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Histomorphology, Physiopathology and Applied Toxicology Group, CIIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto (U.Porto), 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Ana Silva
- Laboratory of Histology and Embryology, Department of Microscopy, ICBAS—School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto (U.Porto), 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Miguel A. Pardal
- Centre for Functional Ecology (CFE), Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Uthaiwan Kovitvadhi
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University (KU), Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Eduardo Rocha
- Learning Institute, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok 10140, Thailand
- Laboratory of Histology and Embryology, Department of Microscopy, ICBAS—School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto (U.Porto), 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Histomorphology, Physiopathology and Applied Toxicology Group, CIIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto (U.Porto), 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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