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Meester EJ, de Blois E, Krenning BJ, van der Steen AFW, Norenberg JP, van Gaalen K, Bernsen MR, de Jong M, van der Heiden K. Autoradiographical assessment of inflammation-targeting radioligands for atherosclerosis imaging: potential for plaque phenotype identification. EJNMMI Res 2021; 11:27. [PMID: 33730311 PMCID: PMC7969682 DOI: 10.1186/s13550-021-00772-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Many radioligands have been developed for the visualization of atherosclerosis by targeting inflammation. However, interpretation of in vivo signals is often limited to plaque identification. We evaluated binding of some promising radioligands in an in vitro approach in atherosclerotic plaques with different phenotypes. METHODS Tissue sections of carotid endarterectomy tissue were characterized as early plaque, fibro-calcific plaque, or phenotypically vulnerable plaque. In vitro binding assays for the radioligands [111In]In-DOTATATE; [111In]In-DOTA-JR11; [67Ga]Ga-Pentixafor; [111In]In-DANBIRT; and [111In]In-EC0800 were conducted, the expression of the radioligand targets was assessed via immunohistochemistry. Radioligand binding and expression of radioligand targets was investigated and compared. RESULTS In sections characterized as vulnerable plaque, binding was highest for [111In]In-EC0800; followed by [111In]In-DANBIRT; [67Ga]Ga-Pentixafor; [111In]In-DOTA-JR11; and [111In]In-DOTATATE (0.064 ± 0.036; 0.052 ± 0.029; 0.011 ± 0.003; 0.0066 ± 0.0021; 0.00064 ± 0.00014 %Added activity/mm2, respectively). Binding of [111In]In-DANBIRT and [111In]In-EC0800 was highest across plaque phenotypes, binding of [111In]In-DOTA-JR11 and [67Ga]Ga-Pentixafor differed most between plaque phenotypes. Binding of [111In]In-DOTATATE was the lowest across plaque phenotypes. The areas positive for cells expressing the radioligand's target differed between plaque phenotypes for all targets, with lowest percentage area of expression in early plaque sections and highest in phenotypically vulnerable plaque sections. CONCLUSIONS Radioligands targeting inflammatory cell markers showed different levels of binding in atherosclerotic plaques and among plaque phenotypes. Different radioligands might be used for plaque detection and discerning early from vulnerable plaque. [111In]In-EC0800 and [111In]In-DANBIRT appear most suitable for plaque detection, while [67Ga]Ga-Pentixafor and [111In]In-DOTA-JR11 might be best suited for differentiation between plaque phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Meester
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus Medical Center, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Erik de Blois
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Antonius F W van der Steen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus Medical Center, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeff P Norenberg
- Radiopharmaceutical Sciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Kim van Gaalen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus Medical Center, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Monique R Bernsen
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marion de Jong
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kim van der Heiden
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus Medical Center, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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The Role of VEGF Receptors as Molecular Target in Nuclear Medicine for Cancer Diagnosis and Combination Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13051072. [PMID: 33802353 PMCID: PMC7959315 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13051072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The rapid development of diagnostic and therapeutic methods of the cancer treatment causes that these diseases are becoming better known and the fight against them is more and more effective. Substantial contribution in this development has nuclear medicine that enables very early cancer diagnosis and early start of the so-called targeted therapy. This therapeutic concept compared to the currently used chemotherapy, causes much fewer undesirable side effects, due to targeting a specific lesion in the body. This review article discusses the possible applications of radionuclide-labelled tracers (peptides, antibodies or synthetic organic molecules) that can visualise cancer cells through pathological blood vessel system in close tumour microenvironment. Hence, at a very early step of oncological disease, targeted therapy can involve in tumour formation and growth. Abstract One approach to anticancer treatment is targeted anti-angiogenic therapy (AAT) based on prevention of blood vessel formation around the developing cancer cells. It is known that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFRs) play a pivotal role in angiogenesis process; hence, application of angiogenesis inhibitors can be an effective approach in anticancer combination therapeutic strategies. Currently, several types of molecules have been utilised in targeted VEGF/VEGFR anticancer therapy, including human VEGF ligands themselves and their derivatives, anti-VEGF or anti-VEGFR monoclonal antibodies, VEGF binding peptides and small molecular inhibitors of VEGFR tyrosine kinases. These molecules labelled with diagnostic or therapeutic radionuclides can become, respectively, diagnostic or therapeutic receptor radiopharmaceuticals. In targeted anti-angiogenic therapy, diagnostic radioagents play a unique role, allowing the determination of the emerging tumour, to monitor the course of treatment, to predict the treatment outcomes and, first of all, to refer patients for AAT. This review provides an overview of design, synthesis and study of radiolabelled VEGF/VEGFR targeting and imaging agents to date. Additionally, we will briefly discuss their physicochemical properties and possible application in combination targeted radionuclide tumour therapy.
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Imaging Early-Stage Metastases Using an 18F-Labeled VEGFR-1-Specific Single Chain VEGF Mutant. Mol Imaging Biol 2020; 23:340-349. [PMID: 33156495 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-020-01555-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Metastatic breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related death in women. The 5-year survival rate for metastatic breast cancer has remained near 26.9 % for over a decade. The recruitment of hematopoietic stem cells with high expression of the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 (VEGFR-1) has been implicated in early stages of metastasis formation. We propose the use of an 18F-labeled single-chain version of VEGF121, re-engineered to be selective for VEGFR-1 (scVR1), as a positron emission tomography (PET) imaging agent to non-invasively image early-stage metastases. PROCEDURES scVR1 was 18F-labeled via a biorthogonal click reaction between site-specifically trans-cyclooctene functionalized scVR1 and an Al18F labeled tetrazine-NODA (1,4,7-triazacyclononane-1,4-diiacetic acid). The [18F]AlF-NODA-scVR1 was purified using a PD10 column and subsequently analyzed on HPLC to determine radiochemical purity. Animal experiments were performed in 6-8-week-old female BALB/c mice bearing orthotopic primary 4T1 breast tumors or 4T1 metastatic lesions. The [18F]AlF-NODA-scVR1 tracer was administered via tail vein injection; PET imaging and ex vivo analysis was performed 2 h post-injection. RESULTS The [18F]AlF-NODA-scVR1 was prepared with a 98.2 ± 1.5 % radiochemical purity and an apparent molar activity of 7.5 ± 1.2 GBq/μmol. The specific binding of scVR1 to VEGFR-1 was confirmed via bead-based assay. The ex vivo biodistribution showed tumor uptake of 3.5 ± 0.5 % ID/g and was readily observable in PET images. Metastasis formation was detected with [18F]AlF-NODA-scVR1 tracer showing colocalization with bioluminescent imaging as well as ex vivo autoradiography and immunofluorescent staining of VEGFR-1. CONCLUSIONS The diagnostic capabilities of the [18F]AlF-NODA-scVR1 PET tracer was confirmed in both orthotopic and metastatic murine cancer models. These results support the potential use of [18F]AlF-NODA-scVR1 as a PET tracer that could image metastases, providing clinicians with an additional tool to assess a patient's need for adjuvant therapies.
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Kuol N, Stojanovska L, Apostolopoulos V, Nurgali K. Role of the Nervous System in Tumor Angiogenesis. CANCER MICROENVIRONMENT 2018; 11:1-11. [PMID: 29502307 DOI: 10.1007/s12307-018-0207-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The development of cancer involves an intricate process, wherein many identified and unidentified factors play a role. Tumor angiogenesis, growth of new blood vessels, is one of the major prerequisites for tumor growth as tumor cells rely on adequate oxygen and nutrient supply as well as the removal of waste products. Growth factors including VEGF orchestrate the development of angiogenesis. In addition, nervous system via the release of neurotransmitters contributes to tumor angiogenesis. The nervous system governs functional activities of many organs, and, as tumors are not independent organs within an organism, this system is integrally involved in tumor growth and progression via regulating tumor angiogenesis. Various neurotransmitters have been reported to play an important role in tumor angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nyanbol Kuol
- Centre for Chronic Disease, College of Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Lily Stojanovska
- Centre for Chronic Disease, College of Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Vasso Apostolopoulos
- Centre for Chronic Disease, College of Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Kulmira Nurgali
- Centre for Chronic Disease, College of Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. .,Department of Medicine Western Health, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cells Program, Australian Institute for Musculoskeletal Science (AIMSS), Melbourne, Australia.
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Zeng C, Wen M, Liu X. Fibroblast activation protein in osteosarcoma cells promotes angiogenesis via AKT and ERK signaling pathways. Oncol Lett 2018; 15:6029-6035. [PMID: 29552230 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.8027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Although it is established as a marker of cancer-associated fibroblasts, the expression of fibroblast activation protein (FAP) is not restricted to stromal cells; its expression in multiple types of tumor cell and its pro-tumor functions have been reported. However, the role of FAP in angiogenesis in osteosarcoma remains uncharacterized. In the present study, it was identified that the mRNA and protein expression levels of FAP and vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) corresponded to each other in MG63, U2-OS and HOS osteosarcoma cells. Subsequent to upregulating FAP in MG63 cells, VEGF-A mRNA and protein expression significantly increased; subsequent to downregulating FAP in U2-OS cells, VEGF-A mRNA and protein expression significantly declined. These changes in VEGF-A level were also detected in the cell supernatant with ELISA. Conditioned medium (CM) from MG63 cells overexpressing FAP promoted the phosphorylation of AKT and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), as well as the proliferation rate. The CM from U2-OS cells with FAP knockdown inhibited the proliferation rate of HUVECs. The phosphorylation of AKT and ERK was increased in MG63 cells overexpressing FAP, but reduced in U2-OS cells with FAP knockdown. Furthermore, treatment with the AKT inhibitor LY294002 or the ERK inhibitor U0126 inhibited the upregulation of VEGF-A induced by FAP expression. Collectively, the results suggest that FAP expression in osteosarcoma cells promotes angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Zeng
- Department of Orthopedics, Weifang Traditional Chinese Medical Hospital, Weifang, Shandong 261041, P.R. China
| | - Ming Wen
- Department of Orthopedics, Weifang Traditional Chinese Medical Hospital, Weifang, Shandong 261041, P.R. China
| | - Xiaomei Liu
- Oncology and Hematology Department, Huangdao District People's Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
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Das S, Haedicke K, Grimm J. Cerenkov-Activated Sticky Tag for In Vivo Fluorescence Imaging. J Nucl Med 2017; 59:58-65. [PMID: 28912146 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.117.198549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A big challenge in the clinical use of Cerenkov luminescence (CL) imaging is its low signal intensity, which is several orders of magnitude below ambient light. Consequently, highly sensitive cameras, sufficient shielding from background light, and long acquisition times are required. To alleviate this problem, we hypothesized a strategy to convert the weak CL signal into a stronger fluorescence signal by using CL-activated formation of nitrenes from azides to locally fix a fluorescent probe in tissue by the formation of a covalent bond. CL-activated drug delivery was also evaluated using the same azide chemistry. The specific delivery of the CL-activated drug to cancer cells could reduce systemic toxicity, which is a limitation in chemotherapy. Methods: A cyanine-class near-infrared fluorescent dye, Cy7, and doxorubicin were synthetically attached to polyfluorinated aryl azide to form Cy7 azide and DOX azide, respectively. Fibrosarcoma cells were incubated with 18F-FDG and exposed to Cy7 azide with subsequent fluorescence imaging. For CL-activated tagging in vivo, tumor-bearing mice were injected first with 90Y-DOTA-RGD, targeting αvβ3 integrins, and then with the Cy7 azide. Fluorescence signal was imaged over time. Breast cancer cells were incubated with DOX azide and 68Ga, after which cell viability was quantified using an assay. Results: CL photoactivation of Cy7 azide in vitro showed significantly higher fluorescence signal from 18F-FDG-treated than untreated cells. In vivo, CL photoactivation could be shown by using the tumor-specific, integrin-targeting 90Y-DOTA-RGD and the localized activation of Cy7 azide. Here, localized CL-induced fluorescence was detected in the tumors and remained significantly higher over several days than in tumors without CL. We also established as a next step CL-activated drug delivery of DOX azide by showing significantly decreasing cell viability of breast cancer cells in a CL dose-dependent manner in vitro using CL photoactivation of DOX azide. Conclusion: We were able to develop a CL-activated "sticky tag" that converts the low CL signal into a stable and long-lasting, highly intense fluorescence signal. This fluorescent footprint of the radioactive signal might be clinically used for intraoperative surgery. The CL-targeted drug delivery strategy may potentially be used for dual-step targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudeep Das
- Molecular Pharmacology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Katja Haedicke
- Molecular Pharmacology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Jan Grimm
- Molecular Pharmacology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York .,Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York.,Pharmacology Program, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York; and.,Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York
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Ma D, Li J, Wang J, Sun Z, Wang K. Clinical implications of vasohibin-1 in esophageal carcinoma cells: Inhibition of cell growth and migration. Mol Med Rep 2017; 16:1479-1485. [PMID: 29067450 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.6726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
As one of the first-established negative feedback regulators of angiogenesis, mesenchymal vasohibin-1 (VASH1) serves important roles in the progression and prognosis of various types of tumor. However, the clinical implications of VASH1 in esophageal carcinoma (EC) cells have not been reported and the direct effects of VASH1 on EC cells remain unknown. In the present study, the expression of VASH1 in EC cells was observed using immunohistochemistry and western blotting; a χ2 test was used to analyze the correlation of VASH1 with clinical parameters, and it was observed that VASH1 was negatively-correlated with tumor size (r=‑0.399; P<0.01) and invasion depth (r=‑0.318; P<0.01). Survival analysis demonstrated that VASH1 was positively‑correlated with increased overall survival (P=0.039) and disease free survival (P=0.012). The direct effects of VASH1 on EC cells were analyzed by altering VASH1 expression, and it was observed that downregulation of VASH1 increased proliferation, clone formation and the migratory ability of EC9706 cells, whereas upregulation of VASH1 inhibited proliferation, clone formation and the migratory ability of EC1 cells. The results of the present study demonstrated that VASH1 in EC cells was negatively‑correlated with progression and poor prognosis of patients with EC. VASH1 was able to directly inhibit the growth and migration of EC cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deliang Ma
- Department of Oncology, Yishui Central Hospital of Linyi, Linyi, Shandong 276400, P.R. China
| | - Jingye Li
- Department of Oncology, Yishui Central Hospital of Linyi, Linyi, Shandong 276400, P.R. China
| | - Jinbao Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Yishui Central Hospital of Linyi, Linyi, Shandong 276400, P.R. China
| | - Zhigang Sun
- Central Laboratory, Yishui Central Hospital of Linyi, Linyi, Shandong 276400, P.R. China
| | - Kai Wang
- Department of Breast Surgery, Weifang People's Hospital, Weifang, Shandong 261041, P.R. China
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Girard R, Zeineddine HA, Orsbon C, Tan H, Moore T, Hobson N, Shenkar R, Lightle R, Shi C, Fam MD, Cao Y, Shen L, Neander AI, Rorrer A, Gallione C, Tang AT, Kahn ML, Marchuk DA, Luo ZX, Awad IA. Micro-computed tomography in murine models of cerebral cavernous malformations as a paradigm for brain disease. J Neurosci Methods 2016; 271:14-24. [PMID: 27345427 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2016.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Revised: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs) are hemorrhagic brain lesions, where murine models allow major mechanistic discoveries, ushering genetic manipulations and preclinical assessment of therapies. Histology for lesion counting and morphometry is essential yet tedious and time consuming. We herein describe the application and validations of X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), a non-destructive technique allowing three-dimensional CCM lesion count and volumetric measurements, in transgenic murine brains. NEW METHOD We hereby describe a new contrast soaking technique not previously applied to murine models of CCM disease. Volumetric segmentation and image processing paradigm allowed for histologic correlations and quantitative validations not previously reported with the micro-CT technique in brain vascular disease. RESULTS Twenty-two hyper-dense areas on micro-CT images, identified as CCM lesions, were matched by histology. The inter-rater reliability analysis showed strong consistency in the CCM lesion identification and staging (K=0.89, p<0.0001) between the two techniques. Micro-CT revealed a 29% greater CCM lesion detection efficiency, and 80% improved time efficiency. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD Serial integrated lesional area by histology showed a strong positive correlation with micro-CT estimated volume (r(2)=0.84, p<0.0001). CONCLUSIONS Micro-CT allows high throughput assessment of lesion count and volume in pre-clinical murine models of CCM. This approach complements histology with improved accuracy and efficiency, and can be applied for lesion burden assessment in other brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romuald Girard
- Neurovascular Surgery Program, Section of Neurosurgery, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Hussein A Zeineddine
- Neurovascular Surgery Program, Section of Neurosurgery, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Courtney Orsbon
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Huan Tan
- Neurovascular Surgery Program, Section of Neurosurgery, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Thomas Moore
- Neurovascular Surgery Program, Section of Neurosurgery, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Nick Hobson
- Neurovascular Surgery Program, Section of Neurosurgery, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Robert Shenkar
- Neurovascular Surgery Program, Section of Neurosurgery, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Rhonda Lightle
- Neurovascular Surgery Program, Section of Neurosurgery, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Changbin Shi
- Neurovascular Surgery Program, Section of Neurosurgery, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Maged D Fam
- Neurovascular Surgery Program, Section of Neurosurgery, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Ying Cao
- Neurovascular Surgery Program, Section of Neurosurgery, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Le Shen
- Neurovascular Surgery Program, Section of Neurosurgery, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA; Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - April I Neander
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Autumn Rorrer
- Molecular Genetics and Microbiology Department, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Carol Gallione
- Molecular Genetics and Microbiology Department, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Alan T Tang
- Department of Medicine and Cardiovascular Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Mark L Kahn
- Department of Medicine and Cardiovascular Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Douglas A Marchuk
- Molecular Genetics and Microbiology Department, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Zhe-Xi Luo
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Issam A Awad
- Neurovascular Surgery Program, Section of Neurosurgery, The University of Chicago Medicine and Biological Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA.
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