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Zai X, Shi B, Shao H, Qian K, Ye J, Yao Y, Nair V, Qin A. Recombinant Turkey Herpesvirus Expressing H9N2 HA Gene at the HVT005/006 Site Induces Better Protection Than That at the HVT029/031 Site. Viruses 2022; 14:v14112495. [PMID: 36423104 PMCID: PMC9698400 DOI: 10.3390/v14112495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Turkey herpesvirus (HVT) is widely used as an effective recombinant vaccine vector for expressing protective antigens of multiple avian pathogens from different loci of the HVT genome. These include the HVT029/031 (UL22-23) locus for the insertion of IBDV VP2 and the recently identified HVT005/006 locus as a novel site for expressing heterologous proteins. In order to compare the efficacy of recombinant vaccines with the HA gene at different sites, the growth curves and the HA expression levels of HVT-005/006-hCMV-HA, HVT-005/006-MLV-HA, and HVT-029/031-MLV-HA were first examined in vitro. While the growth kinetics of three recombinant viruses were not significantly different from those of parent HVT, higher expression of the HA gene was achieved from the HVT005/006 site than that from the HVT029/031 site. The efficacy of the three recombinant viruses against avian influenza H9N2 virus was also evaluated using one-day-old SPF chickens. Chickens immunized with HVT-005/006-MLV-HA or HVT-005/006-hCMV-HA displayed reduced virus shedding compared to HVT-029/031-MLV-HA vaccinated chickens. Moreover, the overall hemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibody titers of HVT-005/006-HA-vaccinated chickens were higher than that of HVT-029/031-HA-vaccinated chickens. However, HVT-005/006-MLV-HA and HVT-005/006-hCMV-HA did not result in a significant difference in the level of HA expression in vitro and provided the same protective efficacy (100%) at 5 days after challenge. In the current study, the results suggested that recombinant HVT005/006 vaccines caused better expression of HA than recombinant HVT029/031 vaccine, and that HVT-005/006-MLV-HA or HVT-005/006-hCMV-HA could be a candidate vaccine for the protection of chickens against H9N2 influenza.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xusheng Zai
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Yangzhou University, No.12 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, No.12 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Bin Shi
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Yangzhou University, No.12 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, No.12 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Hongxia Shao
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Yangzhou University, No.12 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, No.12 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Kun Qian
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Yangzhou University, No.12 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, No.12 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Jianqiang Ye
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Yangzhou University, No.12 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, No.12 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Yongxiu Yao
- The Pirbright Institute & UK-China Centre of Excellence for Research on Avian Diseases, Pirbright, Ash Road, Guildford, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Venugopal Nair
- The Pirbright Institute & UK-China Centre of Excellence for Research on Avian Diseases, Pirbright, Ash Road, Guildford, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
- Correspondence: (V.N.); (A.Q.); Tel.: +44-(0)1483-231-415 (V.N.); +86-(0)-514–87979217 (A.Q.)
| | - Aijian Qin
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Yangzhou University, No.12 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, No.12 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Correspondence: (V.N.); (A.Q.); Tel.: +44-(0)1483-231-415 (V.N.); +86-(0)-514–87979217 (A.Q.)
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Zai X, Shi B, Shao H, Qian K, Ye J, Yao Y, Nair V, Qin A. Identification of a Novel Insertion Site HVT-005/006 for the Generation of Recombinant Turkey Herpesvirus Vector. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:886873. [PMID: 35694305 PMCID: PMC9174942 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.886873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Turkey herpesvirus (HVT) has been widely used as a successful live virus vaccine against Marek's disease (MD) in chickens for more than five decades. Increasingly, HVT is also used as a highly effective recombinant vaccine vector against multiple avian pathogens. Conventional recombination, or recombineering, techniques that involve the cloning of viral genomes and, more recently, gene editing methods have been used for the generation of recombinant HVT-based vaccines. In this study, we used NHEJ-dependent CRISPR/Cas9-based approaches to insert the mCherry cassette for the screening of the HVT genome and identifying new potential sites for the insertion of foreign genes. A novel intergenic site HVT-005/006 in the unique long (UL) region of the HVT genome was identified, and mCherry was found to be stably expressed when inserted at this site. To confirm whether this site was suitable for the insertion of other exogenous genes, haemagglutinin (HA) of the H9N2 virus was inserted into this site, and a recombinant HVT-005/006-HA was rescued. The recombinant HVT-HA can grow well and express HA protein stably, which demonstrated that HVT-005/006 is a promising site for the insertion of foreign genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xusheng Zai
- Ministry of Education Key Lab for Avian Preventive Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou, China
| | - Bin Shi
- Ministry of Education Key Lab for Avian Preventive Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou, China
| | - Hongxia Shao
- Ministry of Education Key Lab for Avian Preventive Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou, China
| | - Kun Qian
- Ministry of Education Key Lab for Avian Preventive Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou, China
| | - Jianqiang Ye
- Ministry of Education Key Lab for Avian Preventive Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou, China
| | - Yongxiu Yao
- The Pirbright Institute & UK-China Centre of Excellence for Research on Avian Diseases, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Venugopal Nair
- The Pirbright Institute & UK-China Centre of Excellence for Research on Avian Diseases, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Aijian Qin
- Ministry of Education Key Lab for Avian Preventive Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou, China
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Hein R, Koopman R, García M, Armour N, Dunn JR, Barbosa T, Martinez A. Review of Poultry Recombinant Vector Vaccines. Avian Dis 2021; 65:438-452. [PMID: 34699141 DOI: 10.1637/0005-2086-65.3.438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The control of poultry diseases has relied heavily on the use of many live and inactivated vaccines. However, over the last 30 yr, recombinant DNA technology has been used to generate many novel poultry vaccines. Fowlpox virus and turkey herpesvirus are the two main vectors currently used to construct recombinant vaccines for poultry. With the use of these two vectors, more than 15 recombinant viral vector vaccines against Newcastle disease, infectious laryngotracheitis, infectious bursal disease, avian influenza, and Mycoplasma gallisepticum have been developed and are commercially available. This review focuses on current knowledge about the safety and efficacy of recombinant viral vectored vaccines and the mechanisms by which they facilitate the control of multiple diseases. Additionally, the development of new recombinant vaccines with novel vectors will be briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruud Hein
- Consultant Poultry Diseases Molecular Vaccine Technology Georgetown DE 19947,
| | - Rik Koopman
- MSD Animal Health/Intervet International BV, Boxmeer, 5831 AN Netherlands
| | - Maricarmen García
- Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
| | - Natalie Armour
- Poultry Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Pathobiology and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Pearl, MS 39208
| | - John R Dunn
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Athens, GA 30602
| | | | - Algis Martinez
- Cobb-Vantress Global Veterinary Services, Siloam Springs, AR 72761
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H5 cleavage-site peptide vaccine protects chickens from lethal infection by highly pathogenic H5 avian influenza viruses. Arch Virol 2021; 167:67-75. [PMID: 34693488 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-021-05284-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Highly pathogenic H5Nx avian influenza viruses constantly threaten the poultry industry and humans and have pandemic potential. These viruses continuously evolve, requiring a universal vaccine to protect chickens from members of diverse clades. The purpose of this study was to develop an H5 cleavage-site peptide vaccine containing polybasic amino acids (RRRK) to completely protect chickens from H5N6, H5N8, and H5N1 avian influenza viruses. Chickens were immunized with various doses of a keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH)-conjugated H5 cleavage-site peptide vaccine containing RRRK. The effect of RRRK was evaluated by comparing the survival rates of chickens immunized with vaccines either containing or lacking RRRK. The ability of the RRRK-containing vaccine to confer long-term protective immunity was also assessed. We found that protection was dependent on the number of antigens in the vaccine containing RRRK. Chickens immunized intramuscularly with two doses of 5 μg of the vaccine containing RRRK were completely protected, but those immunized with fewer than two doses of 3 or 1 μg were not protected. Chickens immunized with the vaccine lacking RRRK were not protected, suggesting the importance of the polybasic amino acids in conferring immunity. Our results suggest that conserved H5 cleavage-site peptides with polybasic amino acids may be a potential universal vaccine to protect chickens from various emerging clades of H5Nx avian influenza viruses.
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Murr M, Grund C, Breithaupt A, Mettenleiter TC, Römer-Oberdörfer A. Protection of Chickens with Maternal Immunity Against Avian Influenza Virus (AIV) by Vaccination with a Novel Recombinant Newcastle Disease Virus Vector. Avian Dis 2020; 64:427-436. [PMID: 33347549 DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-d-20-00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vectors expressing avian influenza virus (AIV) hemagglutinin of subtype H5 protect specific pathogen-free chickens from Newcastle disease and avian influenza. However, maternal AIV antibodies (AIV-MDA+) are known to interfere with active immunization by influencing vaccine virus replication and gene expression, resulting in inefficient protection. To overcome this disadvantage, we inserted a transgene encoding a truncated soluble hemagglutinin (HA) in addition to the gene encoding membrane-bound HA from highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) H5N1 into lentogenic NDV Clone 30 genome (rNDVsolH5_H5) to overexpress H5 antigen. Vaccination of 3-wk-old AIV-MDA+ chickens with rNDVsolH5_H5 and subsequent challenge infection with HPAIV H5N1 3 wk later resulted in 100% protection. Vaccination of younger chickens with higher AIV-MDA levels 1 and 2 wk after hatch resulted in protection rates of 40% and 85%, respectively. However, all vaccinated chickens showed strongly reduced shedding of challenge virus compared with age-matched, nonvaccinated control chickens. All control chickens succumbed to the HPAIV infection with a grading in disease progression between the three groups, indicating the influence of AIV-MDAs even at a low level. Furthermore, the shedding and serologic data gathered after immunization indicate sufficient replication of the vaccine virus, which leads to the assumption that lower protection rates in younger AIV-MDA+ chickens are caused by an H5 antigen-specific block and not by the interference of the AIV-MDA and the vaccine virus itself. In summary, solid protective efficacy and reduced virus transmission were achieved in 3-wk-old AIV-MDA+ chickens, which is relevant especially in regions endemically infected with HPAIV H5N1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Murr
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Christian Grund
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Angele Breithaupt
- Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Thomas C Mettenleiter
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Angela Römer-Oberdörfer
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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Chang P, Ameen F, Sealy JE, Sadeyen JR, Bhat S, Li Y, Iqbal M. Application of HDR-CRISPR/Cas9 and Erythrocyte Binding for Rapid Generation of Recombinant Turkey Herpesvirus-Vectored Avian Influenza Virus Vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 2019; 7:vaccines7040192. [PMID: 31766655 PMCID: PMC6963405 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines7040192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are highly contagious and have caused huge economical loss to the poultry industry. AIV vaccines remain one of the most effective methods of controlling this disease. Turkey herpesvirus (HVT) is a commonly used live attenuated vaccine against Marek’s disease; it has also been used as a viral vector for recombinant AIV vaccine development. The clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 system is a gene editing tool which, in vaccinology, has facilitated the development of recombinant DNA viral-vectored vaccines. Here, we utilize homology-directed repair (HDR) for the generation of a HVT–H7N9 HA bivalent vaccine; a H7N9 HA expression cassette was inserted into the intergenic region between UL45 and UL46 of HVT. To optimize the selection efficiency of our bivalent vaccine, we combined CRISPR/Cas9 with erythrocyte binding to rapidly generate recombinant HVT–H7HA candidate vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengxiang Chang
- Avian Influenza Group, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (P.C.); (J.E.S.); (J.-R.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Faisal Ameen
- Department of Microbiology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
| | - Joshua E. Sealy
- Avian Influenza Group, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (P.C.); (J.E.S.); (J.-R.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Jean-Remy Sadeyen
- Avian Influenza Group, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (P.C.); (J.E.S.); (J.-R.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Sushant Bhat
- Avian Influenza Group, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (P.C.); (J.E.S.); (J.-R.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Yongqing Li
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Beijing Academy of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China;
- Sino–UK Joint Laboratory for the Prevention & Control of Infectious Diseases in Livestock and Poultry, Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Munir Iqbal
- Avian Influenza Group, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (P.C.); (J.E.S.); (J.-R.S.); (S.B.)
- Sino–UK Joint Laboratory for the Prevention & Control of Infectious Diseases in Livestock and Poultry, Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Beijing 100097, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44-1483-231441
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Kingstad-Bakke BA, Chandrasekar SS, Phanse Y, Ross KA, Hatta M, Suresh M, Kawaoka Y, Osorio JE, Narasimhan B, Talaat AM. Effective mosaic-based nanovaccines against avian influenza in poultry. Vaccine 2019; 37:5051-5058. [PMID: 31300285 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.06.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Avian influenza virus (AIV) is an extraordinarily diverse pathogen that causes significant morbidity in domesticated poultry populations and threatens human life with looming pandemic potential. Controlling avian influenza in susceptible populations requires highly effective, economical and broadly reactive vaccines. Several AIV vaccines have proven insufficient despite their wide use, and better technologies are needed to improve their immunogenicity and broaden effectiveness. Previously, we developed a "mosaic" H5 subtype hemagglutinin (HA) AIV vaccine and demonstrated its broad protection against diverse highly pathogenic H5N1 and seasonal H1N1 virus strains in mouse and non-human primate models. There is a significant interest in developing effective and safe vaccines against AIV that cannot contribute to the emergence of new strains of the virus once circulating in poultry. Here, we report on the development of an H5 mosaic (H5M) vaccine antigen formulated with polyanhydride nanoparticles (PAN) that provide sustained release of encapsulated antigens. H5M vaccine constructs were immunogenic whether delivered by the modified virus Ankara (MVA) strain or encapsulated within PAN. Both humoral and cellular immune responses were generated in both specific-pathogen free (SPF) and commercial chicks. Importantly, chicks vaccinated by H5M constructs were protected in terms of viral shedding from divergent challenge with a low pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) strain at 8 weeks post-vaccination. In addition, protective levels of humoral immunity were generated against highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) of the similar H5N1 and genetically dissimilar H5N2 viruses. Overall, the developed platform technologies (MVA vector and PAN encapsulation) were safe and provided high levels of sustained protection against AIV in chickens. Such approaches could be used to design more efficacious vaccines against other important poultry infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brock A Kingstad-Bakke
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA; Pan Genome Systems, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Shaswath S Chandrasekar
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | | | - Kathleen A Ross
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Masato Hatta
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - M Suresh
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Yoshihiro Kawaoka
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Jorge E Osorio
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Balaji Narasimhan
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Adel M Talaat
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA; Pan Genome Systems, Madison, WI, USA.
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Palomino-Tapia VA, Zavala G, Cheng S, García M. Long-term protection against a virulent field isolate of infectious laryngotracheitis virus induced by inactivated, recombinant, and modified live virus vaccines in commercial layers. Avian Pathol 2019; 48:209-220. [PMID: 30640536 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2019.1568389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is an acute respiratory disease of chickens controlled through vaccination with live-modified attenuated vaccines, the chicken embryo origin (CEO) vaccines and the tissue-culture origin (TCO) vaccines. Recently, novel recombinant vaccines have been developed using herpesvirus of turkey (HVT) and fowl pox virus (FPV) as vectors to express ILTV immunogens for protection against ILT. The objective of this study was to assess the protection efficacy against ILT induced by recombinants, live-modified attenuated, and inactivated virus vaccines when administered alone or in combination. Commercial layer pullets were vaccinated with one or more vaccines and challenged at 35 (35 WCH) or 74 weeks of age (74 WCH). Protection was assessed by scoring clinical signs; and by determining the challenge viral load in the trachea at five days post-challenge. The FPV-LT vaccinated birds were not protected when challenged at 35 weeks; the HVT-LT and TCO vaccines in combination provided protection similar to that observed in chickens vaccinated with either HVT-LT or TCO vaccines when challenged at 35 weeks, whereas protection induced by vaccination with HVT-LT followed by TCO was superior in the 74 WCH group compared with the 35 WCH group. Birds given the inactivated ILT vaccine had fewer clinical signs and/or lower viral replication at 74 WCH when combined with TCO or HVT-LT, but not when given alone. Finally, the CEO-vaccinated birds had top protection as indicated by reduction of clinical signs and viral replication when challenged at 35 weeks (74 weeks not done). These results suggest that certain vaccine combinations may be successful to produce long-term protection up to 74 weeks of age against ILT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor A Palomino-Tapia
- a Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, University of Calgary , Calgary , Canada
| | - Guillermo Zavala
- b Avian Health International, LLC , Flowery Branch , GA , USA.,c Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, Department of Population Health , College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia , Athens , GA , USA
| | - Sunny Cheng
- b Avian Health International, LLC , Flowery Branch , GA , USA
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Bertran K, Lee DH, Criado MF, Balzli CL, Killmaster LF, Kapczynski DR, Swayne DE. Maternal antibody inhibition of recombinant Newcastle disease virus vectored vaccine in a primary or booster avian influenza vaccination program of broiler chickens. Vaccine 2018; 36:6361-6372. [PMID: 30241684 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Revised: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Maternally-derived antibodies (MDA) provide early protection from disease, but may interfere with active immunity in young chicks. In highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV)-enzootic countries, broiler chickens typically have MDA to Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and H5 HPAIV, and their impact on active immunity from recombinant vectored vaccines is unclear. We assessed the effectiveness of a spray-applied recombinant NDV vaccine with H5 AIV insert (rNDV-H5) and a recombinant turkey herpesvirus (HVT) vaccine with H5 AIV insert (rHVT-H5) in commercial broilers with MDA to NDV alone (MDA:AIV-NDV+) or to NDV plus AIV (MDA:AIV+NDV+) to provide protection against homologous HPAIV challenge. In Experiment 1, chicks were spray-vaccinated with rNDV-H5 at 3 weeks (3w) and challenged at 5 weeks (5w). All sham-vaccinated progeny lacked AIV antibodies and died following challenge. In rNDV-H5 vaccine groups, AIV and NDV MDA had completely declined to non-detectable levels by vaccination, enabling rNDV-H5 spray vaccine to elicit a protective AIV antibody response by 5w, with 70-78% survival and significant reduction of virus shedding compared to shams. In Experiment 2, progeny were vaccinated with rHVT-H5 and rNDV-H5 at 1 day (1d) or 3w and challenged at 5w. All sham-vaccinated progeny lacked AIV antibodies and died following challenge. In rHVT-H5(1d) vaccine groups, irrespective of rNDV-H5(3w) boost, AIV antibodies reached protective levels pre-challenge, as all progeny survived and virus shedding significantly decreased compared to shams. In contrast, rNDV-H5-vaccinated progeny had AIV and/or NDV MDA at the time of vaccination (1d and/or 3w) and failed to develop a protective immune response by 5w, resulting in 100% mortality after challenge. Our results demonstrate that MDA to AIV had minimal impact on the effectiveness of rHVT-H5, but MDA to AIV and/or NDV at the time of vaccination can prevent development of protective immunity from a primary or booster rNDV-H5 vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateri Bertran
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Dong-Hun Lee
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Miria F Criado
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Charles L Balzli
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Lindsay F Killmaster
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Darrell R Kapczynski
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
| | - David E Swayne
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
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10
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Yoo SJ, Kwon T, Lyoo YS. Challenges of influenza A viruses in humans and animals and current animal vaccines as an effective control measure. Clin Exp Vaccine Res 2018; 7:1-15. [PMID: 29399575 PMCID: PMC5795040 DOI: 10.7774/cevr.2018.7.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are genetically diverse and variable pathogens that share various hosts including human, swine, and domestic poultry. Interspecies and intercontinental viral spreads make the ecology of IAV more complex. Beside endemic IAV infections, human has been exposed to pandemic and zoonotic threats from avian and swine influenza viruses. Animal health also has been threatened by high pathogenic avian influenza viruses (in domestic poultry) and reverse zoonosis (in swine). Considering its dynamic interplay between species, prevention and control against IAV should be conducted effectively in both humans and animal sectors. Vaccination is one of the most efficient tools against IAV. Numerous vaccines against animal IAVs have been developed by a variety of vaccine technologies and some of them are currently commercially available. We summarize several challenges in control of IAVs faced by human and animals and discuss IAV vaccines for animal use with those application in susceptible populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung J. Yoo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Taeyong Kwon
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Young S. Lyoo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
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11
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Villanueva-Cabezas JP, Coppo MJC, Durr PA, McVernon J. Vaccine efficacy against Indonesian Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1: systematic review and meta-analysis. Vaccine 2017; 35:4859-4869. [PMID: 28780119 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.07.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Revised: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Indonesia has implemented multiple strategies to control Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 (HPAI/H5N1), including the licensure and use of multiple vaccine formulations. The continuous drift of Indonesian HPAI/H5N1 viruses and emergence of a new clade in 2012 that became dominant in 2016, demands the assessment of commercial vaccine formulations against Indonesian field viruses. Seven databases were explored to identify relevant literature reporting performance of commercial vaccines against Indonesian HPAI/H5N1 viruses. After methodological assessment, data were collated and analyzed to report immunogenicity and vaccine efficacy (VE) to prevent respiratory and cloacal viral shedding 2-day post challenge, and death at the end of the follow-up period. Meta-analyses were performed to assess VE consistency of alternative formulations and to explore sources of heterogeneity in VE. In total, 65 studies and 46 vaccine formulations from 13 articles were grouped per OIE's VE protocols (group 1) and variations of it (groups 2,3,4). We found that concurrence of vaccine-seed and challenge-viruses in a clade designation might be a better proxy of VE than current estimates based on vaccine-homologous HI antibody titers, particularly against current fourth order clade viruses (groups 1&2). Prime-boosting was efficacious across different chicken breeds (group 3), and early vaccination may increase the risk of death (group 4). One Indonesian vaccine was tested against the new dominant clade, conferring consistent protection in chickens but not in ducks. Meta-analyses revealed high inconsistency (I2≥75%) and inefficacy of LPAI formulations against current field viruses, while potential sources of inconsistent VE were formulation of seed-homologous vaccines and the species vaccinated. We conclude that the VE of commercial vaccines in Indonesia changes as Indonesian HPAI/H5N1 evolve into new clades, which should warrant continuous matching between vaccine-seeds and emerging HPAI/H5N1. Furthermore, given the characteristics of the new Indonesian dominant HPAI/H5N1 clade, further studies to confirm VE across species are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan P Villanueva-Cabezas
- Modelling and Simulation Unit, Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria, Australia; Australian Animal Health Laboratory, CSIRO, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Mauricio J C Coppo
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Peter A Durr
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory, CSIRO, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jodie McVernon
- Modelling and Simulation Unit, Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria, Australia; Victorian Infectious Disease Reference Laboratory, The Royal Melbourne Hospital and The University of Melbourne, at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Victoria, Australia; Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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12
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Kilany WH, Ali A, Bazid AHI, El-Deeb AH, El-Abideen MAZ, Sayed ME, El-Kady MF. A Dose-Response Study of Inactivated Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza H9N2 Virus in Specific-Pathogen-Free and Commercial Broiler Chickens. Avian Dis 2017; 60:256-61. [PMID: 27309065 DOI: 10.1637/11143-050815-reg] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Since the first report of low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) H9N2 virus in Egypt in 2011, the Egyptian poultry industry has suffered from unexpected economic losses as a result of the wide spread of LPAI H9N2. Hence, inactivated H9N2 vaccines have been included in the vaccination programs of different poultry production sectors. The optimal antigen content of avian influenza virus vaccines is essential to reach protective antibody titers. In this study, the correlation between antigen content (based on hemagglutinating units [HAU]) and postvaccination (PV) antibody response of H9N2 inactivated vaccine was studied. Five different vaccine antigen loads (128, 200, 250, 300, and 350 HAU formulas/dose) were investigated in commercial broiler and specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chickens. Vaccine safety and PV antibody responses were monitored. At the fourth week PV only SPF vaccinated groups (128, 200, 250, and 300 HAU/dose) were challenged using LPAI H9N2 (A/Ck/EG/114940v/NLQP/11) virus with 10(6) EID50/bird. Oropharyngeal swabs were used to monitor virus shedding at 2, 4, 6, and 10 days postchallenge. Results showed that all vaccine formulations were well tolerated, and the highest antibody titers were observed in birds vaccinated with higher HAU. Vaccines containing 128 and 200 HAU/dose did not induce the required protective HI titers by 3 wk PV. Meanwhile, the challenge experiment in SPF chickens showed that 250 and 300 HAU vaccine doses were required to reduce the level and duration of virus shedding. Study results thus suggest that inactivated H9N2 vaccines containing at least 250 HAU/dose will induce the optimal protective titers and minimize virus shedding in SPF chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walid H Kilany
- A Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production (NLQP), Animal Health Research Institute, P.O. Box 264, Dokki, Giza, 12618, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Ali
- B Poultry Diseases Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 65211, Egypt
| | - Abdel-Hamid I Bazid
- C Virology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sadat City University, Menoufia, 32897, Egypt
| | - Ayman H El-Deeb
- D Virology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, 12511, Egypt
| | - Mohamed A Zain El-Abideen
- A Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production (NLQP), Animal Health Research Institute, P.O. Box 264, Dokki, Giza, 12618, Egypt.,E Middle East for Veterinary Vaccine Company, Second Industrial Area, El-Salihya El-Gededa, El-Sharkia, 44671, Egypt
| | - Magdy El Sayed
- E Middle East for Veterinary Vaccine Company, Second Industrial Area, El-Salihya El-Gededa, El-Sharkia, 44671, Egypt
| | - Magdy F El-Kady
- B Poultry Diseases Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 65211, Egypt
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13
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Abdul-Cader MS, Palomino-Tapia V, Amarasinghe A, Ahmed-Hassan H, De Silva Senapathi U, Abdul-Careem MF. Hatchery Vaccination Against Poultry Viral Diseases: Potential Mechanisms and Limitations. Viral Immunol 2017; 31:23-33. [PMID: 28714781 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2017.0050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Commercial broiler and layer chickens are heavily vaccinated against economically important viral diseases with a view of preventing morbidity, mortality, and production impacts encountered during short production cycles. Hatchery vaccination is performed through in ovo embryo vaccination prehatch or spray and subcutaneous vaccinations performed at the day of hatch before the day-old chickens are being placed in barns with potentially contaminated environments. Commercially, multiple vaccines (e.g., live, live attenuated, and viral vectored vaccines) are available to administer through these routes within a short period (embryo day 18 prehatch to day 1 posthatch). Although the ability to mount immune response, especially the adaptive immune response, is not optimal around the hatch, it is possible that the efficacy of these vaccines depends partly on innate host responses elicited in response to replicating vaccine viruses. This review focuses on the current knowledge of hatchery vaccination in poultry and potential mechanisms of hatchery vaccine-mediated protective responses and limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Sarjoon Abdul-Cader
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, University of Calgary , Calgary, Canada
| | - Victor Palomino-Tapia
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, University of Calgary , Calgary, Canada
| | - Aruna Amarasinghe
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, University of Calgary , Calgary, Canada
| | - Hanaa Ahmed-Hassan
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, University of Calgary , Calgary, Canada
| | - Upasama De Silva Senapathi
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, University of Calgary , Calgary, Canada
| | - Mohamed Faizal Abdul-Careem
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Health Research Innovation Center 2C53, University of Calgary , Calgary, Canada
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14
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Suarez DL, Pantin-Jackwood MJ. Recombinant viral-vectored vaccines for the control of avian influenza in poultry. Vet Microbiol 2016; 206:144-151. [PMID: 27916319 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Revised: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Vaccination is a commonly used tool for the control of both low pathogenic and highly pathogenic avian influenza (AI) viruses. Traditionally, inactivated adjuvanted vaccines made from a low pathogenic field strain have been used for vaccination, but advances in molecular biology have allowed a number of different viral vectored vaccines, expressing the AI virus hemagglutinin (HA) gene, to be developed and licensed for use for control of AI. This review summarizes the licensed vector vaccines available for use in poultry. As a group, these vaccines can stimulate both a cellular and humoral immune response and, when antigenically well matched to the target AI strain, are effective at preventing clinical disease and reducing virus shedding if vaccinated birds do become infected. The vaccines can often be given to one-day old chicks in the hatchery, which can provide early protection and is a cost effective route of administration of the vaccine. All the licensed vectored vaccines, because they only express the HA gene, can potentially be used to differentiate vaccinated from vaccinated and infected birds, which is often referred to as a DIVA strategy. Although a potentially valuable tool for the surveillance of the virus in countries that vaccinate, the DIVA principle has currently not been applied. Concern remains that maternal antibody or pre-existing immunity to the vector or to the AI HA insert can suppress the immune response to the vaccine. The viral vectored vaccines appear to work well with a prime boost strategy where the vectored vaccine is given first and a different type of vaccine, often a killed adjuvanted vaccine is given two or three weeks later.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Suarez
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA
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15
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Sánchez-Sampedro L, Perdiguero B, Mejías-Pérez E, García-Arriaza J, Di Pilato M, Esteban M. The evolution of poxvirus vaccines. Viruses 2015; 7:1726-803. [PMID: 25853483 PMCID: PMC4411676 DOI: 10.3390/v7041726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/27/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
After Edward Jenner established human vaccination over 200 years ago, attenuated poxviruses became key players to contain the deadliest virus of its own family: Variola virus (VARV), the causative agent of smallpox. Cowpox virus (CPXV) and horsepox virus (HSPV) were extensively used to this end, passaged in cattle and humans until the appearance of vaccinia virus (VACV), which was used in the final campaigns aimed to eradicate the disease, an endeavor that was accomplished by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1980. Ever since, naturally evolved strains used for vaccination were introduced into research laboratories where VACV and other poxviruses with improved safety profiles were generated. Recombinant DNA technology along with the DNA genome features of this virus family allowed the generation of vaccines against heterologous diseases, and the specific insertion and deletion of poxvirus genes generated an even broader spectrum of modified viruses with new properties that increase their immunogenicity and safety profile as vaccine vectors. In this review, we highlight the evolution of poxvirus vaccines, from first generation to the current status, pointing out how different vaccines have emerged and approaches that are being followed up in the development of more rational vaccines against a wide range of diseases.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- History, 18th Century
- History, 19th Century
- History, 20th Century
- History, 21st Century
- Humans
- Poxviridae/immunology
- Poxviridae/isolation & purification
- Smallpox/prevention & control
- Smallpox Vaccine/history
- Smallpox Vaccine/immunology
- Smallpox Vaccine/isolation & purification
- Vaccines, Attenuated/history
- Vaccines, Attenuated/immunology
- Vaccines, Attenuated/isolation & purification
- Vaccines, Synthetic/history
- Vaccines, Synthetic/immunology
- Vaccines, Synthetic/isolation & purification
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Sánchez-Sampedro
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid-28049, Spain.
| | - Beatriz Perdiguero
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid-28049, Spain.
| | - Ernesto Mejías-Pérez
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid-28049, Spain
| | - Juan García-Arriaza
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid-28049, Spain
| | - Mauro Di Pilato
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid-28049, Spain.
| | - Mariano Esteban
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid-28049, Spain.
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