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Ji H, Pan Q, Cao R, Li Y, Yang Y, Chen S, Gu Y, Qian D, Guo Y, Wang L, Wang Z, Xiao L. Garcinone C attenuates RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation and oxidative stress by activating Nrf2/HO-1 and inhibiting the NF-kB signaling pathway. Heliyon 2024; 10:e25601. [PMID: 38333852 PMCID: PMC10850749 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Osteoporosis is the result of osteoclast formation exceeding osteoblast production, and current osteoporosis treatments targeting excessive osteoclast bone resorption have serious adverse effects. There is a need to fully understand the mechanisms of osteoclast-mediated bone resorption, identify new drug targets, and find better drugs to treat osteoporosis. Gar C (Gar C) is a major naturally occurring phytochemical isolated from mangosteen, and is a derivative of the naturally occurring phenolic antioxidant lutein. We used an OP mouse model established by ovariectomy (OVX). We found that treatment with Gar C significantly increased bone mineral density and significantly decreased the expression of TRAP, NFATC1 and CTSK relative to untreated OP mice. We found that Garcinone C could disrupt osteoclast activation and resorption functions by inhibiting RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation as well as inhibiting the formation of multinucleated osteoclasts. Immunoblotting showed that Gar C downregulated the expression of osteoclast-related proteins. In addition, Gar C significantly inhibited RANKL-induced ROS production and affected NF-κB activity by inhibiting phosphorylation Formylation of P65 and phosphorylation and degradation of ikba. These data suggest that Gar C significantly reduced OVX-induced osteoporosis by inhibiting osteoclastogenesis and oxidative stress in bone tissue. Mechanistically, this effect was associated with inhibition of the ROS-mediated NF-κB pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyun Ji
- Translational Medical Innovation Center, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
| | - Qian Pan
- Translational Medical Innovation Center, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
| | - Ruihong Cao
- Translational Medical Innovation Center, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
| | - Yajun Li
- Translational Medical Innovation Center, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
| | - Yunshang Yang
- Translational Medical Innovation Center, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
| | - Shuangshuang Chen
- Translational Medical Innovation Center, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
| | - Yong Gu
- Translational Medical Innovation Center, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
| | - Daoyi Qian
- Translational Medical Innovation Center, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
| | - Yang Guo
- Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210000, China
| | - Liangliang Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, The Affiliated Changzhou Second People's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou, 213000, China
| | - Zhirong Wang
- Translational Medical Innovation Center, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
| | - Long Xiao
- Translational Medical Innovation Center, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhangjiagang TCM Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Zhangjiagang, 215600, China
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Li J, Nie X, Panthakarn Rangsinth, Wu X, Zheng C, Cheng Y, Shiu PHT, Li R, Lee SMY, Fu C, Zhang J, Leung GPH. Structure and activity relationship analysis of xanthones from mangosteen: Identifying garcinone E as a potent dual EGFR and VEGFR2 inhibitor. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 122:155140. [PMID: 37939410 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2023.155140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Xanthones are among the most fundamental phytochemicals in nature. The anti-cancer activities of xanthones and their derivatives have been extensively studied. Recently, we found that garcinone E (GE), an effective anti-cancer phytochemical isolated from mangosteen (Garcinia mangostanal.), showed promising anti-cancer effects in vitro and in vivo. However, little is known about its effects on epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) activity. PURPOSE This study aimed to identify potent dual EGFR and VEGFR2 inhibitors from mangosteen-derived xanthones using structure-activity relationship analyses. STUDY DESIGN The interaction of xanthones with EGFR and VEGFR2 was analyzed using molecular docking experiments. The kinase activities of EGFR and VEGFR2 were determined using bioluminescence assays. The rat aortic ring and Matrigel plug angiogenesis assays were used to evaluate blood vessel formation ex vivo and in vivo. A breast tumor-bearing nude mouse model was established to examine the anti-tumor effects of different xanthones. RESULTS Molecular docking analysis showed that GE bound tightly to EGFR and VEGFR2, with binding energies of -9.73 and -9.56 kcal/mol, respectively. Kinase activity assessment showed that GE strongly inhibited both EGFR and VEGFR2 kinase activity, with IC50 values of 315.4 and 158.2 nM, respectively. Moreover, GE significantly abolished the EGF- and VEGF-induced phosphorylation of EGFR and VEGFR2, respectively. GE also showed strong inhibitory effects on cancer cell growth, endothelial cell migration, invasion, and tube formation. Ex vivo and in vivo angiogenesis assays showed that GE dose-dependently suppressed blood vessel formation in the rat aorta, Matrigel plugs, and transgenic zebrafish embryos, with the lowest effective concentration of 0.25 μM. Furthermore, GE (2 mg/kg) strongly inhibited tumor growth and reduced tumor weight in MDA-MB-231 breast tumor-xenografted mice. GE significantly reduced microvessel density and downregulated the expression of VEGFR2, EGFR, and Ki67 in tumor tissues. CONCLUSION The present study demonstrated that GE was the most potent dual inhibitor of EGFR and VEGFR2 among all xanthones tested. These findings may provide valuable information for the future development of novel and effective dual inhibitors of EGFR and VEGFR2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China; Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xin Nie
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, China
| | - Panthakarn Rangsinth
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xiaoping Wu
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chengwen Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yanfen Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Polly Ho-Ting Shiu
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Renkai Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Simon Ming-Yuen Lee
- Department of Food Science and Nutrient, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chaomei Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Jinming Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China.
| | - George Pak-Heng Leung
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
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Nie X, Fu L, Cheng Y, Wu X, Lv K, Li R, Wu Y, Leung GPH, Fu C, Lee SMY, Seto SW, Zhang J, Li J. Garcinone E suppresses breast cancer growth and metastasis by modulating tumor-associated macrophages polarization via STAT6 signaling. Phytother Res 2023; 37:4442-4456. [PMID: 37259475 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.7909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Cancer metastasis remains the most common cause of death in breast cancer patients. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of metastatic breast cancer. Despite the good anti-cancer activity of garcinone E (GE), there are no reports on its therapeutic effects on breast cancer metastasis. The objective of this study was to examine the anti-cancer effects of GE on metastatic breast cancer. RAW 264.7 and THP-1 cells were polarized to M2 macrophages by IL-4/IL-13 in vitro. A 4T1 mouse breast cancer model and the tail vein breast cancer metastasis model were used to explore the effect of GE on breast cancer growth and metastasis in vivo. In vitro studies showed that GE dose-dependently suppressed IL-4 + IL-13-induced expression of CD206 in both RAW 264.7 cells and differentiated THP-1 macrophages. However, GE did not affect the LPS + IFN-γ-induced polarization to the M1-like macrophages in vitro. GE inhibited the expression of the M2 macrophage specific genes in RAW 264.7 cells, and simultaneously impaired M2 macrophage-induced breast cancer cell proliferation and migration, and angiogenesis. In animal studies, GE significantly suppressed tumor growth, angiogenesis, and lung metastasis in 4T1 tumor-bearing mice, without causing toxicity. In both tumor and lung tissues, the proportion of M2-like TAMs was significantly decreased while the proportion of M1-like TAMs was markedly increased by GE treatment. Mechanistically, GE inhibited phosphorylation of STAT6 in vitro and in vivo. Our results demonstrate for the first time that GE suppresses breast cancer growth and pulmonary metastasis by modulating M2-like macrophage polarization through the STAT6 signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Nie
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, SAR, China
| | - Li Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Yanfen Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaoping Wu
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Kongpeng Lv
- Department of Interventional Radiology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University; The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology), Shenzhen, China
| | - Renkai Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Yihan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - George Pak-Heng Leung
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Chaomei Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Simon Ming-Yuen Lee
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, SAR, China
| | - Sai-Wang Seto
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Science, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
- The Research Center for Chinese Medicine Innovation, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Jinming Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Jingjing Li
- The Research Center for Chinese Medicine Innovation, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, SAR, China
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Li R, Zheng C, Shiu PHT, Rangsinth P, Wang W, Kwan YW, Wong ESW, Zhang Y, Li J, Leung GPH. Garcinone E triggers apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in human colorectal cancer cells by mediating a reactive oxygen species–dependent JNK signaling pathway. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 162:114617. [PMID: 37001180 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite various therapeutic approaches, colorectal cancer is among the most fatal diseases globally. Hence, developing novel and more effective methods for colorectal cancer treatment is essential. Recently, reactive oxygen species (ROS)/JNK signaling pathway has been proposed as the potential target for the anticancer drug discovery. The present study investigated the anticancer effects of the bioactive xanthone garcinone E (GAR E) in mangosteen and explored its underlying mechanism of action. HT-29 and Caco-2 cancer cells were used as in vitro models to study the anticancer effect of GAR E. The findings demonstrated that GAR E inhibited colony formation and wound healing, whereas triggered the production of ROS, which induced mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis, causing cell cycle arrest at the Sub G1 phase. Additionally, GAR E treatment elevated the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 and activated PARP, caspases 3 and 9, and JNK1/2. These GAR E-induced cytotoxic activities and expression of signaling proteins were reversed by the antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine and JNK inhibitor SP600125, indicating the involvement of ROS/JNK signaling pathways. In vivo experiments using an HT-29 xenograft nude mouse model also demonstrated the antitumor effect of GAR E. In conclusion, our findings showed that GAR E might be potentially effective in treating colorectal cancer and provided insights into the development of xanthones as novel chemotherapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renkai Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
| | - Chengwen Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
| | - Polly Ho-Ting Shiu
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
| | - Panthakarn Rangsinth
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
| | - Wen Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
| | - Yiu-Wa Kwan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
| | - Emily Sze-Wan Wong
- Department of Applied Science, School of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
| | - Yanbo Zhang
- School of Chinese Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
| | - Jingjing Li
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China.
| | - George Pak-Heng Leung
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China.
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Garcinia spp: Products and by-products with potential pharmacological application in cancer. FOOD BIOSCI 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbio.2022.102110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Nguyen TTH, Qu Z, Nguyen VT, Nguyen TT, Le TTA, Chen S, Ninh ST. Natural Prenylated Xanthones as Potential Inhibitors of PI3k/Akt/mTOR Pathway in Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells. PLANTA MEDICA 2022; 88:1141-1151. [PMID: 34963183 DOI: 10.1055/a-1728-5166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Three prenylated xanthones, garcinone E (1: ), bannaxanthone D (2: ) and bannanxanthone E (3: ) were isolated from the leaves of Garcinia mckeaniana Graib. Their structures were elucidated by spectral methods and compared with literature data. To evaluate their anti-proliferative effects in tumor cells, firstly, cisplatin was used as a positive control and the effects of compound 1: - 3: were determined by performing MTT assay in MDA-MB-231, CNE-2 and A549 cancer cells. The results showed compound 1: - 3: exhibited stronger inhibitory effect than cisplatin in MDA-MB-231. Further effects of compound 1: - 3: in TNBC MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells were examined by performing cell cycle and apoptosis assays. The results indicated that compound 1: - 3: had ability to arrest cell cycle at G2/M phase and induce apoptosis. Furthermore, compound 2: significantly down-regulated PI3K, Akt and mTOR levels in both total proteins and phosphorylated form, which is its potential anti-cancer mechanism. These findings indicated that those prenylated xanthones might serve as promising leading compounds for the development of anticancer drug for TNBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thi Thu Ha Nguyen
- Institute of Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
- Graduate University of Sciences and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Zhao Qu
- Medical College of China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China
- State Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine and Molecular Pharmacology (Incubation), Shenzhen Research Institute, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Van Tuyen Nguyen
- Institute of Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
- Graduate University of Sciences and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Thanh Tra Nguyen
- Institute of Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
- Graduate University of Sciences and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Thi Tu Anh Le
- Institute of Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Sibao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine and Molecular Pharmacology (Incubation), Shenzhen Research Institute, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Shenzhen, China
- Research Center for Chinese Medicine Innovation, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
- Department of Applied Biology & Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Son The Ninh
- Institute of Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
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Nauman MC, Johnson JJ. The purple mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana): Defining the anticancer potential of selected xanthones. Pharmacol Res 2022; 175:106032. [PMID: 34896543 PMCID: PMC9597473 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2021.106032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The purple mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) is a popular Southeast Asian fruit that has been used traditionally for its health promoting benefits for years. Unique to the mangosteen are a class of phytochemicals known as xanthones that have been reported to display significant anti-cancer and anti-tumor activities, specifically through the promotion of apoptosis, targeting of specific cancer-related proteins, or modulation of cell signaling pathways. α-Mangostin, the most abundant xanthone isolated from the mangosteen, has received substantial attention as it has proven to be a potent phytochemical, specifically as an anticancer agent, in numerous different cancer cell studies and cancer animal models. While the mechanisms for these anticancer effects have been reported in many studies, lesser xanthones, including gartanin, β-mangostin, γ-mangostin, garcinone C, and garcinone E, and mangosteen extracts from the pericarp, roots, rind, and stem show promise for their anticancer activity but their mechanisms of action are not as well developed and remain to be determined. Mangosteen products appear safe and have been well tolerated in human clinical trials where they show antioxidant activity, though their clinical anticancer activity has not yet been evaluated. This review summarizes the work that has been done to explore and explain the anticancer and antitumor activities of α-mangostin, lesser xanthones, and mangosteen extracts in vitro, in vivo, and in humans in various cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirielle C Nauman
- University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy Practice, USA
| | - Jeremy J Johnson
- University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy Practice, USA.
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