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Andersson EP, Lögdal N, Byrne D, Jones TW. Physiological responses and performance factors for double-poling and diagonal-stride treadmill roller-skiing time-trial exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023; 123:2495-2509. [PMID: 37302104 PMCID: PMC10615977 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05239-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To compare physiological responses between a self-paced 4-min double-poling (DP) time-trial (TTDP) versus a 4-min diagonal-stride (DS) time-trial (TTDS). The relative importance of peak oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text]O2peak), anaerobic capacity, and gross efficiency (GE) for projection of 4-min TTDP and TTDS roller-skiing performances were also examined. METHODS Sixteen highly trained male cross-country skiers performed, in each sub-technique on separate occasions, an 8 × 4-min incremental submaximal protocol, to assess individual metabolic rate (MR) versus power output (PO) relationships, followed by a 10-min passive break and then the TTDP or TTDS, with a randomized order between sub-techniques. RESULTS In comparison to TTDS, the TTDP resulted in 10 ± 7% lower total MR, 5 ± 4% lower aerobic MR, 30 ± 37% lower anaerobic MR, and 4.7 ± 1.2 percentage points lower GE, which resulted in a 32 ± 4% lower PO (all P < 0.01). The [Formula: see text]O2peak and anaerobic capacity were 4 ± 4% and 30 ± 37% lower, respectively, in DP than DS (both P < 0.01). The PO for the two time-trial (TT) performances were not significantly correlated (R2 = 0.044). Similar parabolic pacing strategies were used during both TTs. Multivariate data analysis projected TT performance using [Formula: see text]O2peak, anaerobic capacity, and GE (TTDP, R2 = 0.974; TTDS, R2 = 0.848). The variable influence on projection values for [Formula: see text]O2peak, anaerobic capacity, and GE were for TTDP, 1.12 ± 0.60, 1.01 ± 0.72, and 0.83 ± 0.38, respectively, and TTDS, 1.22 ± 0.35, 0.93 ± 0.44, and 0.75 ± 0.19, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The results show that a cross-country skier's "metabolic profile" and performance capability are highly sub-technique specific and that 4-min TT performance is differentiated by physiological factors, such as [Formula: see text]O2peak, anaerobic capacity, and GE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik P Andersson
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
| | - Nestor Lögdal
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
- Centre for Musculoskeletal Research, Department of Occupational and Public Health Sciences, University of Gävle, Gävle, Sweden
| | - Darragh Byrne
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Thomas W Jones
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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Stöggl T, Holmberg HC. A Systematic Review of the Effects of Strength and Power Training on Performance in Cross-Country Skiers. J Sports Sci Med 2022; 21:555-579. [PMID: 36523891 PMCID: PMC9741725 DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2022.555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
To identify and evaluate current scientific literature concerning the effect of strength, power and speed training on relevant physiological and biomechanical characteristics and performance of competitive cross-country skiers (XCS), the databases Scopus and PubMed were searched systematically for original articles in peer-reviewed journals. Of the 599 studies retrieved, 12 met the inclusion criteria (i.e., assessment of outcome measures with relevance for XCS performance; involvement of traditional resistance training; application of external resistance to the body; intervention longer than 4 weeks; randomized controlled trial). The methodological rigor of each study was assessed using the PEDro scale, which were mostly poor-to-fair, with good methodological quality in only two articles. All of the strength/power/speed interventions improved 1RM (0.8-6.8 ES), but findings with respect to jump performance, ability to generate force rapidly and body composition were mixed. Interventions demonstrated moderate-to-high ES on XCS specific performance compared with control (mean ES = 0.56), but the pattern observed was not consistent. None of the interventions changed anaerobic capacity, while in most studies VO2max was either unchanged or increased. Work economy or efficiency was enhanced by most of the interventions. In conclusion, present research indicates that strength training improves general strength, with moderate effects on XCS performance, and inconclusive effects on work economy and VO2max/VO2peak. Strength training with high loads, explosive strength training, or sprint interval training seem to be promising tools for modern XCS training. Future investigations should include long-term (e.g., >6 months) strength training to allow sufficient time for increased strength and speed to influence actual XCS performance. Moreover, they should include both sexes, as well as upper- and lower-body muscles (trained separately and together) and employ free weights and core training. Methodological differences and limitations highlighted here may explain discrepancies in findings and should be taken into consideration in future research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Hallein/Rif, Austria,Red Bull Athlete Performance Center– Salzburg – Austria, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Schlossallee 49, 5400 Hallein/Rif, Austria
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Department of Health Sciences, Luleå University of Technology, Sweden, School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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Harbour E, Stöggl T, Schwameder H, Finkenzeller T. Breath Tools: A Synthesis of Evidence-Based Breathing Strategies to Enhance Human Running. Front Physiol 2022; 13:813243. [PMID: 35370762 PMCID: PMC8967998 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.813243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Running is among the most popular sporting hobbies and often chosen specifically for intrinsic psychological benefits. However, up to 40% of runners may experience exercise-induced dyspnoea as a result of cascading physiological phenomena, possibly causing negative psychological states or barriers to participation. Breathing techniques such as slow, deep breathing have proven benefits at rest, but it is unclear if they can be used during exercise to address respiratory limitations or improve performance. While direct experimental evidence is limited, diverse findings from exercise physiology and sports science combined with anecdotal knowledge from Yoga, meditation, and breathwork suggest that many aspects of breathing could be improved via purposeful strategies. Hence, we sought to synthesize these disparate sources to create a new theoretical framework called “Breath Tools” proposing breathing strategies for use during running to improve tolerance, performance, and lower barriers to long-term enjoyment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Harbour
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
- *Correspondence: Eric Harbour,
| | - Thomas Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
- Red Bull Athlete Performance Center, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Hermann Schwameder
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Thomas Finkenzeller
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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4
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Carlsson T, Wedholm L, Fjordell W, Swarén M, Carlsson M. Effect of sub-technique transitions on energy expenditure and physiological load in the classical-style technique among elite male cross-country skiers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:3201-3209. [PMID: 34402986 PMCID: PMC8505378 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04783-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Purpose To investigate whether sub-technique transitions in the classical-style technique are associated with increased energy expenditure and/or metabolic stress among elite male cross-country skiers. Methods Fifteen elite male skiers completed three 10-min treadmill roller-skiing tests, each of which consisted of 5 min using the diagonal-stride technique (DS) and 5 min using the double-poling technique (DP), combined in three various modes all ensuring comparable mechanical workload, at an inclination of 2.5° and a speed of 13 km/h. In the first and third tests, the participants used 5 min continuous DS followed by 5 min continuous DP, or vice versa (no transition (NT) test), whereas in the second test, they made transitions between DS and DP every 6 s (repeated transition (RT) test). The last 3 min of each 5-min stage was used to calculate the mean values of oxygen uptake (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\dot{\text{V}}\text{O}}_{{2}}$$\end{document}V˙O2), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), metabolic rate (MR), mechanical work rate (MWR), and gross efficiency (GE). In addition, the pre–post-difference in blood lactate concentration (Ladiff) was determined for each test. Paired-samples t tests were used to investigate differences between tests. Results There were no significant differences between NT and RT tests regarding V̇O2, MR, MWR, or GE. Conversely, significant differences were found in RER and Ladiff, where the NT test was associated with higher RER and Ladiff values. Conclusions Roller skiing with repeated sub-technique transitions is not associated with an additional aerobic energy contribution; instead, the anaerobic energy contribution was lower compared to that under continuous use of DS and DP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Carlsson
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden. .,Swedish Unit for Metrology in Sports, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden.
| | - Lars Wedholm
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden
| | - Wilma Fjordell
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden
| | - Mikael Swarén
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden.,Swedish Unit for Metrology in Sports, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden
| | - Magnus Carlsson
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden.,Swedish Unit for Metrology in Sports, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden
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Physiological responses and cycle characteristics during double-poling versus diagonal-stride roller-skiing in junior cross-country skiers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:2229-2241. [PMID: 33893836 PMCID: PMC8260529 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04689-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Purpose This study aimed to compare physiological factors and cycle characteristics during cross-country (XC) roller-skiing at matched inclines and speeds using the double-poling (DP) and diagonal-stride (DS) sub-techniques in junior female and male XC skiers. Methods Twenty-three well-trained junior XC skiers (11 women, 12 men; age 18.2 ± 1.2 yr.) completed two treadmill roller-skiing tests in a randomized order using either DP or DS. The exercise protocols were identical and included a 5 min warm-up, 4 × 5 min submaximal stages, and an incremental test to exhaustion, all performed at a 5° incline. Results No significant three-way interactions were observed between sex, submaximal exercise intensity, and sub-technique. For the pooled sample, higher values were observed for DP versus DS during submaximal exercise for the mean oxygen uptake kinetics response time (33%), energy cost (18%), heart rate (HR) (9%), blood lactate concentration (5.1 versus 2.1 mmol·L−1), rating of perceived exertion (12%), and cycle rate (25%), while cycle length was lower (19%) (all P < 0.001). During the time-to-exhaustion (TTE) test, peak oxygen uptake (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$\dot{V}$$\end{document}V˙O2peak), peak HR, and peak oxygen pulse were 8%, 2%, and 6% lower, respectively, for DP than DS, with a 29% shorter TTE during DP (pooled data, all P < 0.001). Conclusion In well-trained junior XC skiers, DP was found to exert a greater physiological load than DS during uphill XC roller-skiing at submaximal intensities. During the TTE test, both female and male athletes were able to ski for longer and reached markedly higher \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$\dot{V}$$\end{document}V˙O2peak values when using DS compared to DP.
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Stöggl T, Ohtonen O, Takeda M, Miyamoto N, Snyder C, Lemmettylä T, Linnamo V, Lindinger SJ. Comparison of Exclusive Double Poling to Classic Techniques of Cross-country Skiing. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2019; 51:760-772. [PMID: 30418963 PMCID: PMC6430595 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000001840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Introduction This study aimed to 1) determine basic physiological demands during a simulated on-snow cross-country skiing (XCS) race when using grip-waxed skis (all classic XCS techniques [CLASSIC]), versus glide-waxed skis for exclusive double poling (DP) and 2) analyze in which track sections DP is different from CLASSIC under controlled gliding conditions in elite junior and senior skiers. Methods Nineteen male and female elite XC skiers performed 1) two randomized simulated XCS races over 5.3 km using DP or CLASSIC measuring section times, V˙O2, HR, blood lactate, and RPE; and 2) V˙O2peak tests using diagonal stride and DP on treadmill. Results The total group showed no differences in performance or physiological responses between DP and CLASSIC. Elite male skiers achieved improved (~23 s, P < 0.05), male juniors equal (P > 0.05) and females worse (~43 s, P < 0.05) performance with DP versus CLASSIC. Flat and undulating terrain favored DP in men, whereas uphill favored CLASSIC in females (~60 s). Uphill sections showed the greatest group differences. Greater RPE was found in the arms during DP, whereas RPE was greater in the legs using CLASSIC. V˙O2peak in DP was ~95% of V˙O2max. Conclusions Male skiers demonstrated superior performance with exclusively using DP on a Fédération International de Ski regulation-compliant XCS track, whereas junior males achieved similar, and females’ weaker performance using DP versus CLASSIC. The greatest potential in females is in uphill sections where they distinctly lose time. Exclusive DP might only be beneficial in athletes with high upper-body capacity, and double-pole–specific training and technique. To generalize the findings of the current study, further analysis of snow conditions and course topography is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Hallein/Rif, AUSTRIA
| | - Olli Ohtonen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, Sports Technology, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, FINLAND
| | - Masaki Takeda
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Tatara, Kyotanabe, Kyoto, JAPAN
| | - Naoto Miyamoto
- New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Aramaki, Aoba, Sendai, Miyagi, JAPAN
| | - Cory Snyder
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Hallein/Rif, AUSTRIA
| | - Teemu Lemmettylä
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, Sports Technology, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, FINLAND
| | - Vesa Linnamo
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, Sports Technology, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, FINLAND
| | - Stefan Josef Lindinger
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Hallein/Rif, AUSTRIA.,Center of Health and Performance at the Department of Food and Nutrition and Sport Science, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, SWEDEN
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Losnegard T. Energy system contribution during competitive cross-country skiing. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019; 119:1675-1690. [PMID: 31076890 PMCID: PMC6647095 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04158-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Energy system contribution during cross-country (XC) skiing races is dependent on several factors, including the race duration, track profile, and sub-techniques applied, and their subsequent effects on the use of the upper and lower body. This review provides a scientific synopsis of the interactions of energy system contributions from a physiological, technical, and tactical perspective. On average, the aerobic proportion of the total energy expended during XC skiing competitions is comparable to the values for other sports with similar racing times. However, during both sprint (≤ 1.8 km) and distance races (≥ 10 and 15 km, women and men, respectively) a high aerobic turnover interacts with subsequent periods of very high work rates at ~ 120 to 160% of VO2peak during the uphill sections of the race. The repeated intensity fluctuations are possible due to the nature of skiing, which involves intermittent downhills where skiers can recover. Thus, the combination of high and sustained aerobic energy turnover and repeated work rates above VO2peak, interspersed with short recovery periods, distinguishes XC skiing from most other endurance sports. The substantially increased average speed in races over recent decades, frequent competitions in mass starts and sprints, and the greater importance of short periods at high speeds in various sub-techniques, have demanded changes in the physiological, technical, and tactical abilities needed to achieve world-class level within the specific disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Ullevål Stadion, Post box 4014, 0806, Oslo, Norway.
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Jakobsson J, Malm C. Maximal Lactate Steady State and Lactate Thresholds in the Cross-Country Skiing Sub-Technique Double Poling. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXERCISE SCIENCE 2019; 12:57-68. [PMID: 30899341 PMCID: PMC6413839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The response of blood lactate concentration (BLC) to exercise is a commonly used approach to set training intensities and to determine the anaerobic threshold, which are important in evaluation of endurance exercise performance. The maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) is defined as the highest workload or BLC that can be maintained without continual lactate accumulation over time. The aim of this study was to investigate MLSS in the cross-country skiing sub-technique double poling and to assess the validity of a fixed blood lactate threshold (OBLA and the 45° tangent of the lactate curve). Eight well-trained cross-country skiers (age = 27.6±8.8 years [mean±SD], body mass = 73.9±6.2 kg, height = 179.3±7.0 cm) performed an incremental test to determine OBLA and Individual Anaerobic Threshold (IAnT) and several constant workload tests of 30 min to determine the MLSS. Lactate concentration at MLSS in double poling was 6.7±1.3 mmol ·L-1 which was significantly higher compared to OBLA (p<0.001) and IAnT (p<0.01). Despite significant correlations in velocities between MLSS-IAnT and MLSS-OBLA (r=0.95/0.95, p<0.001), significant (p<0.01) differences between MLSS (21.4±2.8 km ·h-1) versus IAnT (20.6±3.6 km ·h-1) and OBLA (19.9±3.0 km ·h-1) was observed. It was concluded that both OBLA and IAnT underestimate MLSS in double poling. A fixed value of 7 mmol ·L-1 would be more appropriate in lactate testing of cross-country skiers using the double poling technique, yet dissuaded because of intra-individual variations. Direct determination of MLSS is the recommended approach for useful exercise thresholds, important for training interventions in elite cross-country skiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Jakobsson
- Department of Community Medicine and Rehabilitation, Sports Medicine Unit, Umeå University, Gösta Skoglunds Väg 3, Sweden
| | - Christer Malm
- Department of Community Medicine and Rehabilitation, Sports Medicine Unit, Umeå University, Gösta Skoglunds Väg 3, Sweden
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Sagelv EH, Engseth TP, Pedersen S, Pettersen SA, Mathisen G, Heitmann KA, Welde B, Thomassen TO, Stöggl TL. Physiological Comparisons of Elite Male Visma Ski Classics and National Level Cross-Country Skiers During Uphill Treadmill Roller Skiing. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1523. [PMID: 30505276 PMCID: PMC6250767 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Longer distance cross-country ski (14–220 km) races such as the Visma Ski Classics (VSC) has recently gained attention in addition to the traditional Olympic distances (5–50 km) associated with cross-country (XC) skiing. These long-distance races are characterized by extensive use of the upper body while double poling (DP). While there is a substantial amount of research on Olympic distance XC skiing, the physiological capacities of VSC skiers has not yet been explored. We recruited seven elite male VSC skiers and seven well-trained national level male XC skiers to undergo three tests in the laboratory: (1) a one repetition maximum (1RM) strength test in a cable pulldown; (2) roller skiing tests on a treadmill (10.5% inclination) for determination of gross efficiency (GE) at submaximal speeds (8 and 10 km·h−1) in DP and diagonal stride (DS); (3) two ramp protocols to exhaustion (15% inclination, starting speed 7 km·h−1) in DP and DS for the assessment of peak and maximal oxygen uptake (V.O2peak and V.O2max), respectively. Compared with the national level XC skiers, the VSC skiers performed similar in the 1RM cable pulldown, displayed 12.2% higher GE in DP at 8 km·h−1 but did not display any difference at 10 km·h−1, and had lower blood lactate concentration and heart rate at both submaximal speeds. The VSC skiers had longer time to exhaustion compared with the national level XC skiers during the two ramp protocols in DS (18%) and in DP (29%). The V.O2max was 10% higher in DS compared with DP, with no differences between the groups. The V.O2peak/V.O2max-ratio of 90% did not differ between the two groups. In conclusion, the main differences were lower cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses at submaximal speeds as well as longer time to exhaustion in VSC skiers compared with national level XC skiers. This suggest efficiency to be the main difference between VSC and national level XC skiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edvard H Sagelv
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Tina P Engseth
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Sigurd Pedersen
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Svein A Pettersen
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Gunnar Mathisen
- Department of Teaching and Pedagogy, Faculty of Humanities, Social Sciences and Teaching, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Kim A Heitmann
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Boye Welde
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Tor O Thomassen
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Thomas L Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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Stöggl T, Pellegrini B, Holmberg HC. Pacing and predictors of performance during cross-country skiing races: A systematic review. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2018; 7:381-393. [PMID: 30450246 PMCID: PMC6234023 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2018.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Revised: 05/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cross-country skiing (XCS) racing, a popular international winter sport, is complex and challenging from physical, technical, and tactical perspectives. Despite the vast amount of research focusing on this sport, no review has yet addressed the pacing strategies of elite XCS racers or the factors that influence their performance. The aim was to review the scientific literature in an attempt to determine the effects of pacing strategy on the performance of elite XCS racers. METHODS Four electronic databases were searched using relevant subject headings and keywords. Only original research articles published in peer-reviewed journals and the English language and addressing performance, biomechanics, physiology, and anthropometry of XCS racers were reviewed. RESULTS All 27 included articles applied correlative designs to study the effectiveness of different pacing strategies. None of the articles involved the use of an experimental design. Furthermore, potential changes in external conditions (e.g., weather, ski properties) were not taken into consideration. A comparable number of studies focused on the skating or classical technique. In most cases, positive pacing was observed, with certain indications that higher-level athletes and those with more endurance and strength utilized a more even pacing strategy. The ability to achieve and maintain a long cycle length on all types of terrain was an important determinant of performance in all of the included studies, which was not the case for cycle rate. In general, uphill performance was closely related to overall race performance, with uphill performance being most closely correlated to the success of female skiers and performance on flat terrain being more important for male skiers. Moreover, pacing was coupled to the selection and distribution of technique during a race, with faster skiers employing more double poling and kick double poling, less diagonal stride, and more V2 (double dance) than V1 (single dance) skating across a race. CONCLUSION We propose that skiers at all levels can improve their performance with more specific training in techniques (i.e., maintaining long cycles without compromising cycle rate and selecting appropriate techniques) in combination with training for endurance and more strength. Furthermore, we would advise less experienced skiers and/or those with lower levels of performance to apply a more even pacing strategy rather than a positive one (i.e., starting the race too fast).
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Hallein/Rif 5400, Austria
| | - Barbara Pellegrini
- CeRiSM Research Centre “Sport, Mountain, and Health,” Rovereto 36068, Italy
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement, University of Verona, Verona 37100, Italy
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund 83128, Sweden
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø 9037, Norway
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 121,Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 17177, Sweden
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Exercise-induced trunk fatigue decreases double poling performance in well-trained cross-country skiers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 118:2077-2087. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-018-3938-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Björklund G, Alricsson M, Svantesson U. Using Bilateral Functional and Anthropometric Tests to Define Symmetry in Cross-Country Skiers. J Hum Kinet 2018; 60:9-18. [PMID: 29339981 PMCID: PMC5765781 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2017-0107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the symmetry of anthropometry and muscle function in cross-country skiers and their association to vertical jumping power. Twenty cross-country skiers were recruited (21.7 ± 3.8 yrs, 180.6 ± 7.6 cm, 73.2 ± 7.6 kg). Anthropometric data was obtained using an iDXA scan. VO2max was determined using the diagonal stride technique on a ski treadmill. Bilateral functional tests for the upper and lower body were the handgrip and standing heel-rise tests. Vertical jump height and power were assessed with a counter movement jump. Percent asymmetry was calculated using a symmetry index and four absolute symmetry index levels. At a group level the upper body was more asymmetrical with regard to lean muscle mass (p = 0.022, d = 0.17) and functional strength (p = 0.019, d = 0.51) than the lower body. At an individual level the expected frequencies for absolute symmetry level indexes showed the largest deviation from zero for the heel-rise test (χ2 = 16.97, p = 0.001), while the leg lean mass deviated the least (χ2 = 0.42, p = 0.517). No relationships were observed between absolute symmetry level indexes of the lower body and counter movement jump performance (p > 0.05). As a group the skiers display a more asymmetrical upper body than lower body regarding muscle mass and strength. Interestingly at the individual level, despite symmetrical lean leg muscle mass the heel-rise test showed the largest asymmetry. This finding indicates a mismatch in muscle function for the lower body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenn Björklund
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid-Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.,The Swedish Sports Confederation, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marie Alricsson
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid-Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.,Department of Sports Science, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Ulla Svantesson
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid-Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.,Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Kim K, Panday SB, Shin IS, Kim JH, Kim HY, Yu GJ. Effect of prolonged racing on muscle activity and spatiotemporal variables: double-poling technique. J Phys Ther Sci 2017; 29:941-945. [PMID: 28603377 PMCID: PMC5462704 DOI: 10.1589/jpts.29.941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
[Purpose] The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a 40-minute race on
muscle activity and spatiotemporal cycle variables at four-time points during a 12-km
roller skiing test using the double-poling technique. [Subjects and Methods] Five elite
cross-country (XC) skiers on the Korean National reserve team participated in the study.
Part of a biathlon course that consisted of both flat land and slopes was selected, and
three measurements were recorded after every 4-km lap. Spatiotemporal variables, mean
frequency and mean amplitude of 6 muscles were the chosen computational parameters.
[Results] Significant differences were observed in cycle time and rate. The mean frequency
of the upper-body muscles exhibited declining trends, with statistically significant
differences for the triceps brachii. In addition, there were significant differences in
the mean amplitude of the tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius. The activity of the triceps
brachii, tibialis anterior, and gastrocnemius showed some degree of dependence on the
technique. [Conclusion] Training and race strategies that improve the function of elbow
extensors and ankle dorsiflexors are important in XC skiing; the application of roller-ski
training research to actual XC skiing competitions is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kitae Kim
- Department of Physical Education, Seoul National University, Republic of Korea
| | - Siddhartha Bikram Panday
- Department of Physical Education, Seoul National University, Republic of Korea.,Department of Fitness Management, University of Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Sik Shin
- Department of Physical Education, Seoul National University, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Hae Kim
- Department of Physical Education, Korea National Sport University, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye-Young Kim
- Division of Liberal Arts and Science, Korea National Sport University, Republic of Korea
| | - Gwang-Jae Yu
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Republic of Korea
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Stöggl T, Schwarzl C, Müller EE, Nagasaki M, Stöggl J, Scheiber P, Schönfelder M, Niebauer J. A Comparison between Alpine Skiing, Cross-Country Skiing and Indoor Cycling on Cardiorespiratory and Metabolic Response. J Sports Sci Med 2016; 15:184-195. [PMID: 26957942 PMCID: PMC4763839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Since physical inactivity especially prevails during winter months, we set out to identify outdoor alternatives to indoor cycling (IC) by comparing the metabolic and cardiorespiratory responses during alpine skiing (AS), cross-country skiing (XCS) and IC and analyse the effects of sex, age and fitness level in this comparison. Twenty one healthy subjects performed alpine skiing (AS), cross-country skiing (XCS), and IC. Oxygen uptake (VO2), total energy expenditure (EE), heart rate (HR), lactate, blood glucose and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were determined during three 4-min stages of low, moderate and high intensity. During XCS and IC VO2max and EE were higher than during AS. At least 2½ hours of AS are necessary to reach the same EE as during one hour of XCS or IC. HR, VO2, lactate, and RPEarms were highest during XCS, whereas RPEwhole-body was similar and RPElegs lower than during AS and IC, respectively. Weight adjusted VO2 and EE were higher in men than in women while fitness level had no effect. Male, fit and young participants were able to increase their EE and VO2 values more pronounced. Both AS and XCS can be individually tailored to serve as alternatives to IC and may thus help to overcome the winter activity deficit. XCS was found to be the most effective activity for generating a high EE and VO2 while AS was the most demanding activity for the legs. Key pointsDuring cross-country skiing and indoor cycling VO2max and energy expenditure were higher than during alpine skiingApproximately 2½ hours of alpine skiing are necessary to reach the same energy expenditure of one hour of cross-country skiing or indoor cycling.Alpine skiing and cross-country skiing can be individually tailored to serve as sports alternatives in winter to activity deficit.By applying different skiing modes as parallel ski steering, carving long radii and short turn skiing, metabolic and cardiorespiratory response can be increased during alpine skiing.Male, fit and young participants were able to increase their energy expenditure and VO2 more pronounced with an increase in intensity compared with their counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Stöggl
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg , Hallein/Rif, Austria
| | - Christoph Schwarzl
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Hallein/Rif, Austria; University Institute of Sports Medicine, Prevention and Rehabilitation, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Edith E Müller
- University Institute of Sports Medicine, Prevention and Rehabilitation, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Research Institute of Molecular Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Masaru Nagasaki
- Department of Health Science, Faculty of Psychological and Physical Science, Aichi Gakuin University , Nisshin, Aichi, Japan
| | - Julia Stöggl
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg , Hallein/Rif, Austria
| | - Peter Scheiber
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg , Hallein/Rif, Austria
| | - Martin Schönfelder
- University Institute of Sports Medicine, Prevention and Rehabilitation, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Research Institute of Molecular Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Josef Niebauer
- University Institute of Sports Medicine, Prevention and Rehabilitation, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Research Institute of Molecular Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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Andersson E, Björklund G, Holmberg HC, Ørtenblad N. Energy system contributions and determinants of performance in sprint cross-country skiing. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2016; 27:385-398. [DOI: 10.1111/sms.12666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- E. Andersson
- Department of Health Sciences; Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
| | - G. Björklund
- Department of Health Sciences; Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
| | - H-C. Holmberg
- Department of Health Sciences; Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
- Swedish Olympic Committee; Stockholm Sweden
| | - N. Ørtenblad
- Department of Health Sciences; Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics; SDU Muscle Research Cluster; University of Southern Denmark; Odense Denmark
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Holmberg H. The elite cross‐country skier provides unique insights into human exercise physiology. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2015; 25 Suppl 4:100-9. [DOI: 10.1111/sms.12601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- H.‐C. Holmberg
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre Department of Health Sciences Mid Sweden University Östersund Sweden
- Swedish Olympic Committee Stockholm Sweden
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