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Balusu S, De Strooper B. The necroptosis cell death pathway drives neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol 2024; 147:96. [PMID: 38852117 PMCID: PMC11162975 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-024-02747-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2024] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
Although apoptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis have been implicated in AD, none fully explains the extensive neuronal loss observed in AD brains. Recent evidence shows that necroptosis is abundant in AD, that necroptosis is closely linked to the appearance of Tau pathology, and that necroptosis markers accumulate in granulovacuolar neurodegeneration vesicles (GVD). We review here the neuron-specific activation of the granulovacuolar mediated neuronal-necroptosis pathway, the potential AD-relevant triggers upstream of this pathway, and the interaction of the necrosome with the endo-lysosomal pathway, possibly providing links to Tau pathology. In addition, we underscore the therapeutic potential of inhibiting necroptosis in neurodegenerative diseases such as AD, as this presents a novel avenue for drug development targeting neuronal loss to preserve cognitive abilities. Such an approach seems particularly relevant when combined with amyloid-lowering drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sriram Balusu
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, 3000, Leuven, Belgium.
- Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Bart De Strooper
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, 3000, Leuven, Belgium.
- Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium.
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.
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2
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Jorge-Oliva M, van Weering JRT, Scheper W. Structurally and Morphologically Distinct Pathological Tau Assemblies Differentially Affect GVB Accumulation. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10865. [PMID: 37446051 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Tau aggregation is central to the pathogenesis of a large group of neurodegenerative diseases termed tauopathies, but it is still unclear in which way neurons respond to tau pathology and how tau accumulation leads to neurodegeneration. A striking neuron-specific response to tau pathology is presented by granulovacuolar degeneration bodies (GVBs), lysosomal structures that accumulate specific cargo in a dense core. Here we employed different tau aggregation models in primary neurons to investigate which properties of pathological tau assemblies affect GVB accumulation using a combination of confocal microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and quantitative automated high-content microscopy. Employing GFP-tagged and untagged tau variants that spontaneously form intraneuronal aggregates, we induced pathological tau assemblies with a distinct subcellular localization, morphology, and ultrastructure depending on the presence or absence of the GFP tag. The quantification of the GVB load in the different models showed that an increased GVB accumulation is associated with the untagged tau aggregation model, characterized by shorter and more randomly distributed tau filaments in the neuronal soma. Our data indicate that tau aggregate structure and/or subcellular localization may be key determinants of GVB accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Jorge-Oliva
- Department of Functional Genomics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience-Neurodegeneration, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan R T van Weering
- Department of Functional Genomics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience-Neurodegeneration, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam Neuroscience-Neurodegeneration, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wiep Scheper
- Department of Functional Genomics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience-Neurodegeneration, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam Neuroscience-Neurodegeneration, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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3
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Jorge-Oliva M, Smits JFM, Wiersma VI, Hoozemans JJM, Scheper W. Granulovacuolar degeneration bodies are independently induced by tau and α-synuclein pathology. Alzheimers Res Ther 2022; 14:187. [PMID: 36517915 PMCID: PMC9749177 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-022-01128-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Granulovacuolar degeneration bodies (GVBs) are intracellular vesicular structures that commonly accompany pathological tau accumulations in neurons of patients with tauopathies. Recently, we developed the first model for GVBs in primary neurons, that requires exogenous tau seeds to elicit tau aggregation. This model allowed the identification of GVBs as proteolytically active lysosomes induced by tau pathology. GVBs selectively accumulate cargo in a dense core, that shows differential and inconsistent immunopositivity for (phosphorylated) tau epitopes. Despite the strong evidence connecting GVBs to tau pathology, these structures have been reported in neurons without apparent pathology in brain tissue of tauopathy patients. Additionally, GVBs and putative GVBs have also been reported in the brain of patients with non-tau proteinopathies. Here, we investigated the connection between pathological protein assemblies and GVBs in more detail. METHODS This study combined newly developed primary neuron models for tau and α-synuclein pathology with observations in human brain tissue from tauopathy and Parkinson's disease patients. Immunolabeling and imaging techniques were employed for extensive characterisation of pathological proteins and GVBs. Quantitative data were obtained by high-content automated microscopy as well as single-cell analysis of confocal images. RESULTS Employing a novel seed-independent neuronal tau/GVB model, we show that in the context of tauopathy, GVBs are inseparably associated with the presence of cytosolic pathological tau and that intracellular tau aggregation precedes GVB formation, strengthening the causal relationship between pathological accumulation of tau and GVBs. We also report that GVBs are inseparably associated with pathological tau at the single-cell level in the hippocampus of tauopathy patients. Paradoxically, we demonstrate the presence of GVBs in the substantia nigra of Parkinson's disease patients and in a primary neuron model for α-synuclein pathology. GVBs in this newly developed α-synuclein/GVB model are induced in the absence of cytosolic pathological tau accumulations. GVBs in the context of tau or α-synuclein pathology showed similar immunoreactivity for different phosphorylated tau epitopes. The phosphorylated tau immunoreactivity signature of GVBs is therefore independent of the presence of cytosolic tau pathology. CONCLUSION Our data identify the emergence of GVBs as a more generalised response to cytosolic protein pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Jorge-Oliva
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Functional Genomics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit (VU), De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jasper F. M. Smits
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Functional Genomics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit (VU), De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Vera I. Wiersma
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Functional Genomics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit (VU), De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands ,grid.509540.d0000 0004 6880 3010Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen J. M. Hoozemans
- grid.509540.d0000 0004 6880 3010Department of Pathology, Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands ,grid.484519.5Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Wiep Scheper
- grid.12380.380000 0004 1754 9227Department of Functional Genomics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit (VU), De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands ,grid.509540.d0000 0004 6880 3010Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands ,grid.484519.5Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Jiang J, Yang C, Ai JQ, Zhang QL, Cai XL, Tu T, Wan L, Wang XS, Wang H, Pan A, Manavis J, Gai WP, Che C, Tu E, Wang XP, Li ZY, Yan XX. Intraneuronal sortilin aggregation relative to granulovacuolar degeneration, tau pathogenesis and sorfra plaque formation in human hippocampal formation. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:926904. [PMID: 35978952 PMCID: PMC9376392 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.926904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular β-amyloid (Aβ) deposition and intraneuronal phosphorylated-tau (pTau) accumulation are the hallmark lesions of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Recently, “sorfra” plaques, named for the extracellular deposition of sortilin c-terminal fragments, are reported as a new AD-related proteopathy, which develop in the human cerebrum resembling the spatiotemporal trajectory of tauopathy. Here, we identified intraneuronal sortilin aggregation as a change related to the development of granulovacuolar degeneration (GVD), tauopathy, and sorfra plaques in the human hippocampal formation. Intraneuronal sortilin aggregation occurred as cytoplasmic inclusions among the pyramidal neurons, co-labeled by antibodies to the extracellular domain and intracellular C-terminal of sortilin. They existed infrequently in the brains of adults, while their density as quantified in the subiculum/CA1 areas increased in the brains from elderly lacking Aβ/pTau, with pTau (i.e., primary age-related tauopathy, PART cases), and with Aβ/pTau (probably/definitive AD, pAD/AD cases) pathologies. In PART and pAD/AD cases, the intraneuronal sortilin aggregates colocalized partially with various GVD markers including casein kinase 1 delta (Ck1δ) and charged multivesicular body protein 2B (CHMP2B). Single-cell densitometry established an inverse correlation between sortilin immunoreactivity and that of Ck1δ, CHMP2B, p62, and pTau among pyramidal neurons. In pAD/AD cases, the sortilin aggregates were reduced in density as moving from the subiculum to CA subregions, wherein sorfra plaques became fewer and absent. Taken together, we consider intraneuronal sortilin aggregation an aging/stress-related change implicating protein sorting deficit, which can activate protein clearance responses including via enhanced phosphorylation and hydrolysis, thereby promoting GVD, sorfra, and Tau pathogenesis, and ultimately, neuronal destruction and death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Jiang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Chen Yang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Jia-Qi Ai
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Qi-Lei Zhang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Xiao-Lu Cai
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Tian Tu
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Changsha, China
| | - Lily Wan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Xiao-Sheng Wang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Aihua Pan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Jim Manavis
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Wei-Ping Gai
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Chong Che
- GeneScience Pharmaceuticals Co., Ltd., Changchun High-Tech Dev. Zone, Changchun, China
| | - Ewen Tu
- Department of Neurology, Brain Hospital of Hunan Province, Changsha, China
| | - Xiao-Ping Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Changsha, China
| | - Zhen-Yan Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: Zhen-Yan Li,
| | - Xiao-Xin Yan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, China
- Xiao-Xin Yan,
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Wennström M, Janelidze S, Nilsson KPR, Serrano GE, Beach TG, Dage JL, Hansson O. Cellular localization of p-tau217 in brain and its association with p-tau217 plasma levels. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2022; 10:3. [PMID: 34991721 PMCID: PMC8734209 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-021-01307-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies highlight phosphorylated tau (p-tau) at threonine tau 217 (p-tau217) as a new promising plasma biomarker for pathological changes implicated in Alzheimer's disease (AD), but the specific brain pathological events related to the alteration in p-tau217 plasma levels are still largely unknown. Using immunostaining techniques of postmortem AD brain tissue, we show that p-tau217 is found in neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and neuropil threads that are also positive for p-tau181, 202, 202/205, 231, and 369/404. The p-tau217, but not the other five p-tau variants, was also prominently seen in vesicles structure positive for markers of granulovacuolar degeneration bodies and multi-vesicular bodies. Further, individuals with a high likelihood of AD showed significantly higher p-tau217 area fraction in 4 different brain areas (entorhinal cortex, inferior temporal gyrus, and superior frontal gyrus) compared to those with Primary age related tauopathy or other non-AD tauopathies. The p-tau217 area fraction correlated strongly with total amyloid-beta (Aβ) and NFT brain load when the whole group was analyzed. Finally, the mean p-tau217 area fraction correlated significantly with p-tau217 concentrations in antemortem collected plasma specifically in individuals with amyloid plaques and not in those without amyloid plaques. These studies highlight differences in cellular localization of different p-tau variants and suggest that plasma levels of p-tau217 reflect an accumulation of p-tau217 in presence of Aβ plaque load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malin Wennström
- Clinical Memory Research Unit, Department of Clinical Sciences Malmö, Lund University, Inga Marie Nilssons gata 53, 214 28, Malmö, Sweden.
| | - Shorena Janelidze
- Clinical Memory Research Unit, Department of Clinical Sciences Malmö, Lund University, Inga Marie Nilssons gata 53, 214 28, Malmö, Sweden
| | - K Peter R Nilsson
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology IFM, Linköping University, 581 83, Linköping, Sweden
| | | | | | - Jeffrey L Dage
- Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Oskar Hansson
- Clinical Memory Research Unit, Department of Clinical Sciences Malmö, Lund University, Inga Marie Nilssons gata 53, 214 28, Malmö, Sweden.
- Memory Clinic, Skåne University Hospital, Malmö, Sweden.
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6
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Jellinger KA. Recent update on the heterogeneity of the Alzheimer’s disease spectrum. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2021; 129:1-24. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-021-02449-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Tau aggregation and its relation to selected forms of neuronal cell death. Essays Biochem 2021; 65:847-857. [PMID: 34897457 PMCID: PMC8709892 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20210030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
How neurons die in neurodegenerative diseases is still unknown. The distinction between apoptosis as a genetically controlled mechanism, and necrosis, which was viewed as an unregulated process, has blurred with the ever-increasing number of necrotic-like death subroutines underpinned by genetically defined pathways. It is therefore pertinent to ask whether any of them apply to neuronal cell death in tauopathies. Although Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent tauopathy, tauopathies comprise an array of over 30 diseases in which the cytoplasmic protein tau aggregates in neurons, and also, in some diseases, in glia. Animal models have sought to distil the contribution of tau aggregation to the cell death process but despite intensive research, no one mechanism of cell death has been unequivocally defined. The process of tau aggregation, and the fibrillar structures that form, touch on so many cellular functions that there is unlikely to be a simple linear pathway of death; as one is blocked another is likely to take the lead. It is timely to ask how far we have advanced into defining whether any of the molecular players in the new death subroutines participate in the death process. Here we briefly review the currently known cell death routines and explore what is known about their participation in tau aggregation-related cell death. We highlight the involvement of cell autonomous and the more recent non-cell autonomous pathways that may enhance tau-aggregate toxicity, and discuss recent findings that implicate microglial phagocytosis of live neurons with tau aggregates as a mechanism of death.
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Hondius DC, Koopmans F, Leistner C, Pita-Illobre D, Peferoen-Baert RM, Marbus F, Paliukhovich I, Li KW, Rozemuller AJM, Hoozemans JJM, Smit AB. The proteome of granulovacuolar degeneration and neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol 2021; 141:341-358. [PMID: 33492460 PMCID: PMC7882576 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-020-02261-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Granulovacuolar degeneration (GVD) is a common feature in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The occurrence of GVD is closely associated with that of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and GVD is even considered to be a pre-NFT stage in the disease process of AD. Currently, the composition of GVD bodies, the mechanisms associated with GVD and how GVD exactly relates to NFTs is not well understood. By combining immunohistochemistry (IHC) and laser microdissection (LMD) we isolated neurons with GVD and those bearing tangles separately from human post-mortem AD hippocampus (n = 12) using their typical markers casein kinase (CK)1δ and phosphorylated tau (AT8). Control neurons were isolated from cognitively healthy cases (n = 12). 3000 neurons per sample were used for proteome analysis by label free LC-MS/MS. In total 2596 proteins were quantified across samples and a significant change in abundance of 115 proteins in GVD and 197 in tangle bearing neurons was observed compared to control neurons. With IHC the presence of PPIA, TOMM34, HSP70, CHMP1A, TPPP and VXN was confirmed in GVD containing neurons. We found multiple proteins localizing specifically to the GVD bodies, with VXN and TOMM34 being the most prominent new protein markers for GVD bodies. In general, protein groups related to protein folding, proteasomal function, the endolysosomal pathway, microtubule and cytoskeletal related function, RNA processing and glycolysis were found to be changed in GVD neurons. In addition to these protein groups, tangle bearing neurons show a decrease in ribosomal proteins, as well as in various proteins related to protein folding. This study, for the first time, provides a comprehensive human based quantitative assessment of protein abundances in GVD and tangle bearing neurons. In line with previous functional data showing that tau pathology induces GVD, our data support the model that GVD is part of a pre-NFT stage representing a phase in which proteostasis and cellular homeostasis is disrupted. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms and cellular processes affected in GVD and its relation to the presence of tau pathology is highly relevant for the identification of new drug targets for therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Hondius
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location VUmc, PO Box 7057, Amsterdam, 1007 MB, The Netherlands.
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Frank Koopmans
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Conny Leistner
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Débora Pita-Illobre
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Regina M Peferoen-Baert
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location VUmc, PO Box 7057, Amsterdam, 1007 MB, The Netherlands
| | - Fenna Marbus
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location VUmc, PO Box 7057, Amsterdam, 1007 MB, The Netherlands
| | - Iryna Paliukhovich
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ka Wan Li
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Annemieke J M Rozemuller
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location VUmc, PO Box 7057, Amsterdam, 1007 MB, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen J M Hoozemans
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location VUmc, PO Box 7057, Amsterdam, 1007 MB, The Netherlands
| | - August B Smit
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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