Amyloid pathology arrangements in Alzheimer's disease brains modulate in vivo seeding capability

In silico analysis of the use of solanine derivatives as a treatment for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a brain illness that causes cognitive impairment in the elderly, especially females, as a result of genetics, hormones, and life experiences. It becomes more severe with age and is associated with cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and diabetes. Beta-amyloid plaques and hyper phosphorylated Tau protein buildup are common clinical findings. Misfiling of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and Amyloid beta peptide (Aβ) proteins contributes to Alzheimer's disease. Enzyme Acetylcholinesterase enzyme interacts with amyloid-beta, enhancing its accumulation in insoluble plaques, leading to successful treatment for Alzheimer's disease primarily based on lowering this enzyme. Treatments include using the Rivastigmine for mild, moderate, or severe Alzheimer's disease, which inhibits acetylcholinesterase, but may cause side effects; Solanine derivatives, nightshade toxin, it is cholinesterase inhibitory, may mitigate Alzheimer's illness is progressing. In this research utilized a molecular docking program, which is a computer's computational ability to determine the optimal position for a specific compound to bind to a protein or target, forming a target-ligand complex and displaying biological activity and aiding in the development of effective anti-AD treatments and understanding AD pathological mechanisms. The study examined complexes of 3LII (Acetylcholinesterase receptor) in the A and B chain with Solanine and Rivastigmine derivatives, using an in-silico approach. PyRx default sorter was used to improve docking accuracy. Four compounds were selected based on their higher binding affinities in chain A and B. The results showed that Solanine derivatives (alpha-Solanine, Beta1-Solanine and Beta2-Solanine) have higher binding strength (-9.0,-9.3 and -8.6) than Rivastigmine (-7.2) in chain A, and also the binding strength was high for the Solanine derivatives (alpha-Solanine, Beta1-Solanine, and Beta2-Solanine) (-9.0,-8.8 and -8.9) is higher than Rivastigmine (-6.0) in the chain B. Solanine derivatives showed higher binding strength with acetylcholinesterase, potentially for to reduce the progression of the disease.

The Single Toxin Origin of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Neurodegenerative Disorders Enables Targeted Approach to Treatment and Prevention

New data suggest that the aggregation of misfolded native proteins initiates and drives the pathogenic cascade that leads to Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other age-related neurodegenerative disorders. We propose a unifying single toxin theory of brain neurodegeneration that identifies new targets and approaches to the development of disease-modifying treatments. An extensive body of genetic evidence suggests soluble aggregates of beta-amyloid (Aβ) as the primary neurotoxin in the pathogenesis of AD. New insights from fluid biomarkers, imaging, and clinical studies provide further evidence for the decisive impact of toxic Aβ species in the initiation and progression of AD. Understanding the distinct roles of soluble and insoluble amyloid aggregates on AD pathogenesis has been the key missing piece of the Alzheimer's puzzle. Data from clinical trials with anti-amyloid agents and recent advances in the diagnosis of AD demonstrate that the driving insult in biologically defined AD is the neurotoxicity of soluble Aβ aggregates, called oligomers and protofibrils, rather than the relatively inert insoluble mature fibrils and amyloid plaques. Amyloid oligomers appear to be the primary factor causing the synaptic impairment, neuronal stress, spreading of tau pathology, and eventual cell death that lead to the clinical syndrome of AD dementia. All other biochemical effects and neurodegenerative changes in the brain that are observed in AD are a response to or a downstream effect of this initial toxic insult by oligomers. Other neurodegenerative disorders follow a similar pattern of pathogenesis, in which normal brain proteins with important biological functions become trapped in the aging brain due to impaired clearance and then misfold and aggregate into neurotoxic species that exhibit prion-like behavior. These aggregates then spread through the brain and cause disease-specific neurodegeneration. Targeting the inhibition of this initial step in neurodegeneration by blocking the misfolding and aggregation of healthy proteins has the potential to slow or arrest disease progression, and if treatment is administered early in the course of AD and other neurodegenerative disorders, it may delay or prevent the onset of clinical symptoms.

Linderae Radix Ameliorates Cognitive Dysfunction by Inhibiting Neuroinflammation and Synaptic Damage in Alzheimer's Disease Models

Neuroinflammation and synaptic damage are important etiologies associated with the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Linderae Radix (LR) has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. This study investigated whether LR attenuates microglia activation-mediated neuroinflammation and synaptic degeneration and improves AD pathological phenotypes induced by amyloid beta oligomers (AβO) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) toxicity. For in vitro studies, we treated LR to AβO-stimulated HT22 cells or LR LPS-stimulated BV2 cells. For in vivo studies, we administered LR to mice and AβO was injected by stereotaxic to induce cognitive impairment, neuroinflammation, and synaptic loss. We found that LR increased the cell viability reduced by AβO. Moreover, LR inhibited pro-inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO), inducible NO synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and downregulated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling in BV2 cells. Behavioral assessments demonstrated that LR administration significantly improved cognitive decline induced by AβO-injection. Furthermore, we found that microglia activation increased, and the expression of synaptic proteins decreased in the hippocampus of the AβO-injected group, which was alleviated in the LR-treated group. These findings suggest that LR may be a potential candidate for protection against neuroinflammation and synaptic loss, and may prevent or delay AD progression.

Two structurally defined Aβ polymorphs promote different pathological changes in susceptible mice

Misfolded Aβ is involved in the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the role of its polymorphic variants or conformational strains in AD pathogenesis is not fully understood. Here, we study the seeding properties of two structurally defined synthetic misfolded Aβ strains (termed 2F and 3F) using in vitro and in vivo assays. We show that 2F and 3F strains differ in their biochemical properties, including resistance to proteolysis, binding to strain-specific dyes, and in vitro seeding. Injection of these strains into a transgenic mouse model produces different pathological features, namely different rates of aggregation, formation of different plaque types, tropism to specific brain regions, differential recruitment of Aβ40 /Aβ42 peptides, and induction of microglial and astroglial responses. Importantly, the aggregates induced by 2F and 3F are structurally different as determined by ssNMR. Our study analyzes the biological properties of purified Aβ polymorphs that have been characterized at the atomic resolution level and provides relevant information on the pathological significance of misfolded Aβ strains.

A near-infrared probe for detecting and interposing amyloid beta oligomerization in early Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

The misfolding and deposition of amyloid beta (Aβ) in human brain is the main hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. One of the drivers of Alzheimer´s pathogenesis is the production of soluble oligomeric Aβ, which could potentially serve as a biomarker of AD.

METHODS

Given that the diphenylalanine (FF) at the C-terminus of Aβ fragments plays a key role in inducing the AD pathology, based on the hydrophobic structure of FF, we synthesized a near-infrared BF2-dipyrrolmethane fluorescent imaging probe (NB) to detect both soluble and insoluble Aβ.

RESULTS

We found that NB not only binds Aβ, particularly oligomeric Aβ, but also interposes self-assembly of Aβ through π-π interaction between NB and FF.

CONCLUSION

This work holds great promise in the early detection of AD and may also provide an innovative approach to decelerate and even halt AD onset and progression.

Synthetic, Cell-Derived, Brain-Derived, and Recombinant β-Amyloid: Modelling Alzheimer's Disease for Research and Drug Development

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly, characterised by the accumulation of senile plaques and tau tangles, neurodegeneration, and neuroinflammation in the brain. The development of AD is a pathological cascade starting according to the amyloid hypothesis with the accumulation and aggregation of the β-amyloid peptide (Aβ), which induces hyperphosphorylation of tau and promotes the pro-inflammatory activation of microglia leading to synaptic loss and, ultimately, neuronal death. Modelling AD-related processes is important for both studying the molecular basis of the disease and the development of novel therapeutics. The replication of these processes is often achieved with the use of a purified Aβ peptide. However, Aβ preparations obtained from different sources can have strikingly different properties. This review aims to compare the structure and biological effects of Aβ oligomers and aggregates of a higher order: synthetic, recombinant, purified from cell culture, or extracted from brain tissue. The authors summarise the applicability of Aβ preparations for modelling Aβ aggregation, neurotoxicity, cytoskeleton damage, receptor toxicity in vitro and cerebral amyloidosis, synaptic plasticity disruption, and cognitive impairment in vivo and ex vivo. Further, the paper discusses the causes of the reported differences in the effect of Aβ obtained from the sources mentioned above. This review points to the importance of the source of Aβ for AD modelling and could help researchers to choose the optimal way to model the Aβ-induced abnormalities.

Multi-Dose Intravenous Administration of Neutral and Cationic Liposomes in Mice: An Extensive Toxicity Study

Liposomes are widely used as delivery systems for therapeutic purposes. However, the toxicity associated with the multi-dose administration of these nanoparticles is not fully elucidated. Here, we evaluated the toxicity of the prolonged administration of liposomes composed of neutral or cationic phospholipids often used in drug and gene delivery. For that purpose, adult wild-type mice (C57Bl6) were randomly distributed into three groups receiving either vehicle (PBS), neutral, or cationic liposomes and subjected to repeated intravenous injections for a total of 10 doses administered over 3 weeks. Several parameters, including mortality, body weight, and glucose levels, were monitored throughout the trial. While these variables did not change in the group treated with neutral liposomes, the group treated with the positively charged liposomes displayed a mortality rate of 45% after 10 doses of administration. Additional urinalysis, blood tests, and behavioral assays to evaluate impairments of motor functions or lesions in major organs were also performed. The cationic group showed less forelimb peak force than the control group, alterations at the hematological level, and inflammatory components, unlike the neutral group. Overall, the results demonstrate that cationic liposomes are toxic for multi-dose administration, while the neutral liposomes did not induce changes associated with toxicity. Therefore, our results support the use of the well-known neutral liposomes as safe drug shuttles, even when repetitive administrations are needed.

Transgenic Mouse Models of Alzheimer's Disease: An Integrative Analysis

Alzheimer's disease (AD) constitutes the most prominent form of dementia among elderly individuals worldwide. Disease modeling using murine transgenic mice was first initiated thanks to the discovery of heritable mutations in amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilins (PS) genes. However, due to the repeated failure of translational applications from animal models to human patients, along with the recent advances in genetic susceptibility and our current understanding on disease biology, these models have evolved over time in an attempt to better reproduce the complexity of this devastating disease and improve their applicability. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview about the major pathological elements of human AD (plaques, tauopathy, synaptic damage, neuronal death, neuroinflammation and glial dysfunction), discussing the knowledge that available mouse models have provided about the mechanisms underlying human disease. Moreover, we highlight the pros and cons of current models, and the revolution offered by the concomitant use of transgenic mice and omics technologies that may lead to a more rapid improvement of the present modeling battery.

Transmission of Cerebral β-Amyloidosis Among Individuals

Deposition of amyloid β protein (Aβ) in the brain (cerebral β-amyloidosis) is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). So far, there have been increasing number of experimental studies using AD mouse model that cerebral β-amyloidosis could be transmitted among individuals as prion-like mechanism. Furthermore, several pathological studies using autopsied patients with iatrogenic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) showed that cerebral β-amyloidosis in addition to the CJD pathology could be transmitted among humans via medical procedures, such as human growth hormone derived from cadaver injection and cadaveric dura mater graft. In addition, although cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), which is Aβ deposition in the cerebral vessels, related cerebral hemorrhage rarely develops in young people, several patients with CAA-related cerebral hemorrhage under the age of 55 with histories of neurosurgeries with and without dura mater graft in early childhood have been reported. These patients might show that Aβ pathology is often recognized as Aβ-CAA rather than parenchymal Aβ deposition in the transmission of cerebral β-amyloidosis in humans, and we proposed an emerging concept, "acquired CAA". Considering that there have been several patients with acquired CAA with an incubation period from neurosurgery and the onset of CAA related cerebral hemorrhage of longer than 40 years, the number of cases is likely to increase in the future, and detailed epidemiological investigation is required. It is necessary to continue to elucidate the pathomechanisms of acquired CAA and urgently establish a method for preventing the transmission of cerebral β-amyloidosis among individuals.

The clock modulator Nobiletin mitigates astrogliosis-associated neuroinflammation and disease hallmarks in an Alzheimer's disease model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder, and there is a pressing need to identify disease‐modifying factors and devise interventional strategies. The circadian clock, our intrinsic biological timer, orchestrates various cellular and physiological processes including gene expression, sleep, and neuroinflammation; conversely, circadian dysfunctions are closely associated with and/or contribute to AD hallmarks. We previously reported that the natural compound Nobiletin (NOB) is a clock‐enhancing modulator that promotes physiological health and healthy aging. In the current study, we treated the double transgenic AD model mice, APP/PS1, with NOB‐containing diets. NOB significantly alleviated β‐amyloid burden in both the hippocampus and the cortex, and exhibited a trend to improve cognitive function in these mice. While several systemic parameters for circadian wheel‐running activity, sleep, and metabolism were unchanged, NOB treatment showed a marked effect on the expression of clock and clock‐controlled AD gene expression in the cortex. In accordance, cortical proteomic profiling demonstrated circadian time‐dependent restoration of the protein landscape in APP/PS1 mice treated with NOB. More importantly, we found a potent efficacy of NOB to inhibit proinflammatory cytokine gene expression and inflammasome formation in the cortex, and immunostaining further revealed a specific effect to diminish astrogliosis, but not microgliosis, by NOB in APP/PS1 mice. Together, these results underscore beneficial effects of a clock modulator to mitigate pathological and cognitive hallmarks of AD, and suggest a possible mechanism via suppressing astrogliosis‐associated neuroinflammation.

Aged Cattle Brain Displays Alzheimer's Disease-Like Pathology and Promotes Brain Amyloidosis in a Transgenic Animal Model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the leading causes of dementia in late life. Although the cause of AD neurodegenerative changes is not fully understood, extensive evidence suggests that the misfolding, aggregation and cerebral accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) and tau proteins are hallmark events. Recent reports have shown that protein misfolding and aggregation can be induced by administration of small quantities of preformed aggregates, following a similar principle by which prion diseases can be transmitted by infection. In the past few years, many of the typical properties that characterize prions as infectious agents were also shown in Aβ aggregates. Interestingly, prion diseases affect not only humans, but also various species of mammals, and it has been demonstrated that infectious prions present in animal tissues, particularly cattle affected by bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), can infect humans. It has been reported that protein deposits resembling Aβ amyloid plaques are present in the brain of several aged non-human mammals, including monkeys, bears, dogs, and cheetahs. In this study, we investigated the presence of Aβ aggregates in the brain of aged cattle, their similarities with the protein deposits observed in AD patients, and their capability to promote AD pathological features when intracerebrally inoculated into transgenic animal models of AD. Our data show that aged cattle can develop AD-like neuropathological abnormalities, including amyloid plaques, as studied histologically. Importantly, cow-derived aggregates accelerate Aβ amyloid deposition in the brain of AD transgenic animals. Surprisingly, the rate of induction produced by administration of the cattle material was substantially higher than induction produced by injection of similar amounts of human AD material. Our findings demonstrate that cows develop seeding-competent Aβ aggregates, similarly as observed in AD patients.

Expanding the family of extracellular chaperones: Identification of human plasma proteins with chaperone activity

Proteostasis, the balance of protein synthesis, folding and degradation, is essential to maintain cellular function and viability, and the many known intracellular chaperones are recognized as playing key roles in sustaining life. In contrast, the identity of constitutively secreted extracellular chaperones (ECs) and their physiological roles in extracellular proteostasis is less completely understood. We designed and implemented a novel strategy, based on the well-known propensity of chaperones to bind to regions of hydrophobicity exposed on misfolding proteins, to discover new ECs present in human blood. We used a destabilized protein that misfolds at 37°C as "bait" to bind to potential ECs in human serum and captured the complexes formed on magnetic beads. Proteins eluted from the beads were identified by mass spectrometry and a group of seven abundant serum proteins was selected for in vitro analysis of chaperone activity. Five of these proteins were shown to specifically inhibit protein aggregation. Vitronectin and plasminogen activator-3 inhibited both the in vitro aggregation of the Alzheimer's β peptide (Aβ1-42 ) to form fibrillar amyloid, and the aggregation of citrate synthase (CS) to form unstructured (amorphous) aggregates. In contrast, prothrombin, C1r, and C1s inhibited the aggregation of Aβ1-42 but did not inhibit CS aggregation. This study thus identified five novel and abundant putative ECs which may play important roles in the maintenance of extracellular proteostasis, and which apparently have differing abilities to inhibit the amorphous and amyloid-forming protein aggregation pathways.

Effects of the Clock Modulator Nobiletin on Circadian Rhythms and Pathophysiology in Female Mice of an Alzheimer's Disease Model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder and the most common cause of dementia. Various pathogenic mechanisms have been proposed to contribute to disease progression, and recent research provided evidence linking dysregulated circadian rhythms/sleep and energy metabolism with AD. Previously, we found that the natural compound Nobiletin (NOB) can directly activate circadian cellular oscillators to promote metabolic health in disease models and healthy aging in naturally aged mice. In the current study, using the amyloid-β AD model APP/PS1, we investigated circadian, metabolic and amyloid characteristics of female mice and the effects of NOB. Female APP/PS1 mice showed reduced sleep bout duration, and NOB treatment exhibited a trend to improve it. While glucose tolerance was unchanged, female APP/PS1 mice displayed exaggerated oxygen consumption and CO2 production, which was mitigated by NOB. Likewise, cold tolerance in APP/PS1 was impaired relative to WT, and interestingly was markedly enhanced in NOB-treated APP/PS1 mice. Although circadian behavioral rhythms were largely unchanged, real-time qPCR analysis revealed altered expression of several core clock genes by NOB in the cerebral cortex, notably Bmal1, Npas2, and Rora. Moreover, NOB was also able to activate various clock-controlled metabolic genes involved in insulin signaling and mitochondrial function, including Igf1, Glut1, Insr, Irs1, Ucp2, and Ucp4. Finally, we observed that NOB attenuated the expression of several AD related genes including App, Bace1, and ApoE, reduced APP protein levels, and strongly ameliorated Aβ pathology in the cortex. Collectively, these results reveal novel genotype differences and importantly beneficial effects of a natural clock-enhancing compound in biological rhythms and related pathophysiology, suggesting the circadian clock as a modifiable target for AD.