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Yang Y, Nie X, Wang Y, Sun J, Gao X, Zhang J. Evolving insights into erythrocytes in synucleinopathies. Trends Neurosci 2024; 47:693-707. [PMID: 39043489 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2024.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2024] [Revised: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Abstract
Synucleinopathies, including Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple system atrophy (MSA), and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), are characterized by neuronal loss accompanied by α-synuclein (α-syn) accumulation in the brain. While research conventionally focused on brain pathology, there is growing interest in peripheral alterations. Erythrocytes, which are rich in α-syn, have emerged as a compelling site for synucleinopathies-related alterations. Erythrocyte-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs), containing pathological α-syn species, can traverse the blood-brain barrier (BBB) under certain conditions and the gastrointestinal tract, where α-syn and gut microbiota interact extensively. This review explores the accumulating evidence of erythrocyte involvement in synucleinopathies, as well as their potential in disease pathogenesis and diagnosis. Given their unique properties, erythrocytes and erythrocyte-derived EVs may also serve as an ideal therapeutic platform for treating synucleinopathies and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Yang
- Department of Pathology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoqian Nie
- Key Laboratory of Growth Regulation and Translational Research of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China; Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yajie Wang
- Department of Cell Biology and Bone Marrow Transplantation Center of the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang, China; Institute of Hematology, Zhejiang University & Zhejiang Engineering Laboratory for Stem Cell and Immunotherapy, Zhejiang, China; Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jie Sun
- Department of Cell Biology and Bone Marrow Transplantation Center of the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang, China; Institute of Hematology, Zhejiang University & Zhejiang Engineering Laboratory for Stem Cell and Immunotherapy, Zhejiang, China; Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiaofei Gao
- Key Laboratory of Growth Regulation and Translational Research of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China; Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Jing Zhang
- Department of Pathology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China; National Health and Disease Human Brain Tissue Resource Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
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So RWL, Amano G, Stuart E, Ebrahim Amini A, Aguzzi A, Collingridge GL, Watts JC. α-Synuclein strain propagation is independent of cellular prion protein expression in a transgenic synucleinopathy mouse model. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012517. [PMID: 39264912 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 08/20/2024] [Indexed: 09/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The cellular prion protein, PrPC, has been postulated to function as a receptor for α-synuclein, potentially facilitating cell-to-cell spreading and/or toxicity of α-synuclein aggregates in neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease. Previously, we generated the "Salt (S)" and "No Salt (NS)" strains of α-synuclein aggregates that cause distinct pathological phenotypes in M83 transgenic mice overexpressing A53T-mutant human α-synuclein. To test the hypothesis that PrPC facilitates the propagation of α-synuclein aggregates, we produced M83 mice that either express or do not express PrPC. Following intracerebral inoculation with the S or NS strain, the absence of PrPC in M83 mice did not prevent disease development and had minimal influence on α-synuclein strain-specified attributes such as the extent of cerebral α-synuclein deposition, selective targeting of specific brain regions and cell types, the morphology of induced α-synuclein deposits, and the structural fingerprints of protease-resistant α-synuclein aggregates. Likewise, there were no appreciable differences in disease manifestation between PrPC-expressing and PrPC-lacking M83 mice following intraperitoneal inoculation of the S strain. Interestingly, intraperitoneal inoculation with the NS strain resulted in two distinct disease phenotypes, indicative of α-synuclein strain evolution, but this was also independent of PrPC expression. Overall, these results suggest that PrPC plays at most a minor role in the propagation, neuroinvasion, and evolution of α-synuclein strains in mice that express A53T-mutant human α-synuclein. Thus, other putative receptors or cell-to-cell propagation mechanisms may have a larger effect on the spread of α-synuclein aggregates during disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaella W L So
- Tanz Centre for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Genki Amano
- Tanz Centre for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Erica Stuart
- Tanz Centre for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Aeen Ebrahim Amini
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Physiology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Adriano Aguzzi
- Institute of Neuropathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Graham L Collingridge
- Tanz Centre for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Physiology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Joel C Watts
- Tanz Centre for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Yang Y, Zhang Z. α-Synuclein pathology from the body to the brain: so many seeds so close to the central soil. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:1463-1472. [PMID: 38051888 PMCID: PMC10883481 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.387967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT α-Synuclein is a protein that mainly exists in the presynaptic terminals. Abnormal folding and accumulation of α-synuclein are found in several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease. Aggregated and highly phosphorylated α-synuclein constitutes the main component of Lewy bodies in the brain, the pathological hallmark of Parkinson's disease. For decades, much attention has been focused on the accumulation of α-synuclein in the brain parenchyma rather than considering Parkinson's disease as a systemic disease. Recent evidence demonstrates that, at least in some patients, the initial α-synuclein pathology originates in the peripheral organs and spreads to the brain. Injection of α-synuclein preformed fibrils into the gastrointestinal tract triggers the gut-to-brain propagation of α-synuclein pathology. However, whether α-synuclein pathology can occur spontaneously in peripheral organs independent of exogenous α-synuclein preformed fibrils or pathological α-synuclein leakage from the central nervous system remains under investigation. In this review, we aimed to summarize the role of peripheral α-synuclein pathology in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. We also discuss the pathways by which α-synuclein pathology spreads from the body to the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunying Yang
- Department of Neurology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Zhentao Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
- TaiKang Center for Life and Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
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4
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Xing V, Biggar K, Ferguson SSG, Hayley S. In vitro modulation of mTOR and mGlur5 influence α-synuclein accumulation. Mol Brain 2024; 17:9. [PMID: 38360671 PMCID: PMC10870503 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-023-01074-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2024] Open
Abstract
One of the main hallmarks of Parkinson's disease (PD) is abnormal alpha-synuclein (α-syn) aggregation which forms the main component of intracellular Lewy body inclusions. This short report used preformed α-syn fibrils, as well as an A53T mutant α-syn adenovirus to mimic conditions of pathological protein aggregation in dopaminergic human derived SH-SY5Y neural cells. Since there is evidence that the mTOR pathway and glutamatergic signaling each influence protein aggregation, we also assessed the impact of the mTOR inhibitor, rapamycin and the mGluR5 allosteric modulator, CTEP. We found that both rapamycin and CTEP induced a significant reduction of α-syn fibrils in SH-SY5Y cells and this effect was associated with a reduction in mTOR signaling and enhancement in autophagic pathway factors. These data support the possibility that CTEP (or rapamycin) might be a useful pharmacological approach to target abnormal α-syn accumulation by promoting intracellular degradation or enhanced clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria Xing
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Kyle Biggar
- Institute of Biochemistry and Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Stephen S G Ferguson
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Ottawa, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, ON, K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Shawn Hayley
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada.
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Khedmatgozar CR, Holec SAM, Woerman AL. The role of α-synuclein prion strains in Parkinson's disease and multiple system atrophy. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1011920. [PMID: 38271292 PMCID: PMC10810466 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chase R. Khedmatgozar
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Prion Research Center, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Sara A. M. Holec
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Prion Research Center, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Amanda L. Woerman
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Prion Research Center, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
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Tarutani A, Hasegawa M. Ultrastructures of α-Synuclein Filaments in Synucleinopathy Brains and Experimental Models. J Mov Disord 2024; 17:15-29. [PMID: 37990381 PMCID: PMC10846975 DOI: 10.14802/jmd.23213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 11/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Intracellular α-synuclein (α-syn) inclusions are a neuropathological hallmark of Lewy body disease (LBD) and multiple system atrophy (MSA), both of which are termed synucleinopathies. LBD is defined by Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites in neurons, while MSA displays glial cytoplasmic inclusions in oligodendrocytes. Pathological α-syn adopts an ordered filamentous structure with a 5-10 nm filament diameter, and this conformational change has been suggested to be involved in the disease onset and progression. Synucleinopathies also exhibit characteristic ultrastructural and biochemical properties of α-syn filaments, and α-syn strains with distinct conformations have been identified. Numerous experimental studies have supported the idea that pathological α-syn self-amplifies and spreads throughout the brain, during which processes the conformation of α-syn filaments may drive the disease specificity. In this review, we summarize the ultrastructural features and heterogeneity of α-syn filaments in the brains of patients with synucleinopathy and in experimental models of seeded α-syn aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Airi Tarutani
- Department of Brain and Neurosciences, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masato Hasegawa
- Department of Brain and Neurosciences, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan
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Videlock EJ, Xing T, Yehya AHS, Travagli RA. Experimental models of gut-first Parkinson's disease: A systematic review. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2023; 35:e14604. [PMID: 37125607 PMCID: PMC10524037 DOI: 10.1111/nmo.14604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is strong support from studies in humans and in animal models that Parkinson's disease (PD) may begin in the gut. This brings about a unique opportunity for researchers in the field of neurogastroenterology to contribute to advancing the field and making contributions that could lead to the ability to diagnose and treat PD in the premotor stages. Lack of familiarity with some of the aspects of the experimental approaches used in these studies may present a barrier for neurogastroenterology researchers to enter the field. Much remains to be understood about intestinal-specific components of gut-first PD pathogenesis and the field would benefit from contributions of enteric and central nervous system neuroscientists. PURPOSE To address these issues, we have conducted a systematic review of the two most frequently used experimental models of gut-first PD: transneuronal propagation of α-synuclein preformed fibrils and oral exposure to environmental toxins. We have reviewed the details of these studies and present methodological considerations for the use of these models. Our aim is that this review will serve as a framework and useful reference for neuroscientists, gastroenterologists, and neurologists interested in applying their expertise to advancing our understanding of gut-first PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth J. Videlock
- Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Tiaosi Xing
- Department of Neural and Behavioral Sciences, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Ashwaq Hamid Salem Yehya
- Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Dovonou A, Bolduc C, Soto Linan V, Gora C, Peralta Iii MR, Lévesque M. Animal models of Parkinson's disease: bridging the gap between disease hallmarks and research questions. Transl Neurodegener 2023; 12:36. [PMID: 37468944 PMCID: PMC10354932 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-023-00368-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms. More than 200 years after its first clinical description, PD remains a serious affliction that affects a growing proportion of the population. Prevailing treatments only alleviate symptoms; there is still neither a cure that targets the neurodegenerative processes nor therapies that modify the course of the disease. Over the past decades, several animal models have been developed to study PD. Although no model precisely recapitulates the pathology, they still provide valuable information that contributes to our understanding of the disease and the limitations of our treatment options. This review comprehensively summarizes the different animal models available for Parkinson's research, with a focus on those induced by drugs, neurotoxins, pesticides, genetic alterations, α-synuclein inoculation, and viral vector injections. We highlight their characteristics and ability to reproduce PD-like phenotypes. It is essential to realize that the strengths and weaknesses of each model and the induction technique at our disposal are determined by the research question being asked. Our review, therefore, seeks to better aid researchers by ensuring a concrete discernment of classical and novel animal models in PD research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axelle Dovonou
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Cyril Bolduc
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Victoria Soto Linan
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Charles Gora
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Modesto R Peralta Iii
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Martin Lévesque
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada.
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada.
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Sawamura M, Ohira J, Hikawa R, Ishimoto T, Nakanishi E, Yamakado H, Takahashi R. Single-dose intranasal administration of α-syn PFFs induce lewy neurite-like pathology in olfactory bulbs. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2023; 112:105440. [PMID: 37267818 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2023.105440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Pathological α-synuclein (α-Syn) propagation may cause Parkinson's disease progression. We aimed to verify whether single-dose intranasal administration of α-Syn preformed fibrils (PFFs) induces α-Syn pathology in the olfactory bulb (OB). METHODS A single dose of α-Syn PFFs was administered to the left nasal cavity of wild-type mice. The untreated right side served as a control. The α-Syn pathology of the OBs was examined up to 12 months after the injection. RESULTS Lewy neurite-like aggregates were observed in the OB 6 and 12 months after the treatment. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that pathological α-Syn can propagate from the olfactory mucosa to the OB and reveal the potential dangers of α-Syn PFFs inhalation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Junichiro Ohira
- Department of Neurology, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Rie Hikawa
- Department of Neurology, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto, Japan
| | | | - Etsuro Nakanishi
- Department of Neurology, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hodaka Yamakado
- Department of Neurology, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto, Japan
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Chen M, Mor DE. Gut-to-Brain α-Synuclein Transmission in Parkinson's Disease: Evidence for Prion-like Mechanisms. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087205. [PMID: 37108366 PMCID: PMC10139032 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a multifactorial disorder involving both motor and non-motor symptoms caused by the progressive death of distinct neuronal populations, including dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. The deposition of aggregated α-synuclein protein into Lewy body inclusions is a hallmark of the disorder, and α-synuclein pathology has been found in the enteric nervous system (ENS) of PD patients up to two decades prior to diagnosis. In combination with the high occurrence of gastrointestinal dysfunction in early stages of PD, current evidence strongly suggests that some forms of PD may originate in the gut. In this review, we discuss human studies that support ENS Lewy pathology as a characteristic feature of PD, and present evidence from humans and animal model systems that α-synuclein aggregation may follow a prion-like spreading cascade from enteric neurons, through the vagal nerve, and into the brain. Given the accessibility of the human gut to pharmacologic and dietary interventions, therapeutic strategies aimed at reducing pathological α-synuclein in the gastrointestinal tract hold significant promise for PD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merry Chen
- Department of Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Danielle E Mor
- Department of Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
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Unique seeding profiles and prion-like propagation of synucleinopathies are highly dependent on the host in human α-synuclein transgenic mice. Acta Neuropathol 2022; 143:663-685. [PMID: 35488930 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-022-02425-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
α-synuclein (αSyn) is an intrinsically disordered protein which can undergo structural transformations, resulting in the formation of stable, insoluble fibrils. αSyn amyloid-type nucleation can be induced by misfolded 'seeds' serving as a conformational template, tantamount to the prion-like mechanism. Accumulation of αSyn inclusions is a key feature of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and multiple system atrophy (MSA), and are found as additional pathology in Alzheimer's disease (AD) such as AD with amygdala predominant Lewy bodies (AD/ALB). While these disorders accumulate the same pathological protein, they exhibit heterogeneity in clinical and histological features; however, the mechanism(s) underlying this variability remains elusive. Accruing data from human autopsy studies, animal inoculation modeling, and in vitro characterization experiments, have lent credence to the hypothesis that conformational polymorphism of the αSyn amyloid-type fibril structure results in distinct "strains" with categorical infectivity traits. Herein, we directly compare the seeding abilities and outcome of human brain lysates from these diseases, as well as recombinant preformed human αSyn fibrils by the intracerebral inoculation of transgenic mice overexpressing either human wild-type αSyn or human αSyn with the familial A53T mutation. Our study has revealed that the initiating inoculum heavily dictates the phenotypic and pathological course of disease. Interestingly, we have also established relevant host-dependent distinctions between propagation profiles, including burden and spread of inclusion pathology throughout the neuroaxis, as well as severity of neurological symptoms. These findings provide compelling evidence supporting the hypothesis that diverse prion-type conformers may explain the variability seen in synucleinopathies.
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Van Den Berge N, Ulusoy A. Animal models of brain-first and body-first Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 163:105599. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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