New opportunities for nanoparticles in cancer immunotherapy

Shifting cold to hot tumors by nanoparticle-loaded drugs and products

Cold tumors lack antitumor immunity and are resistant to therapy, representing a major challenge in cancer medicine. Because of the immunosuppressive spirit of the tumor microenvironment (TME), this form of tumor has a low response to immunotherapy, radiotherapy, and also chemotherapy. Cold tumors have low infiltration of immune cells and a high expression of co-inhibitory molecules, such as immune checkpoints and immunosuppressive molecules. Therefore, targeting TME and remodeling immunity in cold tumors can improve the chance of tumor repression after therapy. However, tumor stroma prevents the infiltration of inflammatory cells and hinders the penetration of diverse molecules and drugs. Nanoparticles are an intriguing tool for the delivery of immune modulatory agents and shifting cold to hot tumors. In this review article, we discuss the mechanisms underlying the ability of nanoparticles loaded with different drugs and products to modulate TME and enhance immune cell infiltration. We also focus on newest progresses in the design and development of nanoparticle-based strategies for changing cold to hot tumors. These include the use of nanoparticles for targeted delivery of immunomodulatory agents, such as cytokines, small molecules, and checkpoint inhibitors, and for co-delivery of chemotherapy drugs and immunomodulatory agents. Furthermore, we discuss the potential of nanoparticles for enhancing the efficacy of cancer vaccines and cell therapy for overcoming resistance to treatment.

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout strategies for enhancing immunotherapy in breast cancer

Breast cancer, a prevalent disease with significant mortality rates, often presents treatment challenges due to its complex genetic makeup. This review explores the potential of combining Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) gene knockout strategies with immunotherapeutic approaches to enhance breast cancer treatment. The CRISPR/Cas9 system, renowned for its precision in inducing genetic alterations, can target and eliminate specific cancer cells, thereby minimizing off-target effects. Concurrently, immunotherapy, which leverages the immune system's power to combat cancer, has shown promise in treating breast cancer. By integrating these two strategies, we can potentially augment the effectiveness of immunotherapies by knocking out genes that enable cancer cells to evade the immune system. However, safety considerations, such as off-target effects and immune responses, necessitate careful evaluation. Current research endeavors aim to optimize these strategies and ascertain the most effective methods to stimulate the immune response. This review provides novel insights into the integration of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout strategies and immunotherapy, a promising avenue that could revolutionize breast cancer treatment as our understanding of the immune system's interplay with cancer deepens.

Folic acid-modified nanocrystalline cellulose for enhanced delivery and anti-cancer effects of crocin

Crocin is a carotenoid compound in saffron with anti-cancer properties. However, its therapeutic application is limited by its low absorption, bioavailability, and stability, which can be overcome through nanocarrier delivery systems. This study used surface-modified Nano-crystalline cellulose (NCC) to deliver crocin to cancer cells. NCC modified with CTAB were loaded with crocin and then conjugated with folic acid (NCF-CR-NPs). The synthesized nanoparticles (NPs) were characterized using FTIR, XRD, DLS, and FESEM. The crystallinity index of NCC was 66.64%, higher than microcrystalline cellulose (61.4%). The crocin loading and encapsulation efficiency in NCF-CR-NPs were evaluated. Toxicity testing by MTT assay showed that NCF-CR-NPs had higher toxicity against various cancer cell lines, including colon cancer HT-29 cells (IC50 ~ 11.6 μg/ml), compared to free crocin. Fluorescent staining, flow cytometry, and molecular analysis confirmed that NCF-CR-NPs induced apoptosis in HT-29 cells by increasing p53 and caspase 8 expression. The antioxidant capacity of NCF-CR-NPs was also evaluated using ABTS and DPPH radical scavenging assays. NCF-CR-NPs exhibited high free radical scavenging ability, with an IC50 of ~ 46.5 μg/ml for ABTS. In conclusion, this study demonstrates the potential of NCF-CR-NPs to deliver crocin to cancer cells effectively. The NPs exhibited enhanced anti-cancer and antioxidant activities compared to free crocin, making them a promising nanocarrier system for crocin-based cancer therapy.

Current Progress in the Science of Novel Adjuvant Nano-Vaccine-Induced Protective Immune Responses

Vaccinations are vital as they protect us from various illness-causing agents. Despite all the advancements in vaccine-related research, developing improved and safer vaccines against devastating infectious diseases including Ebola, tuberculosis and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) remains a significant challenge. In addition, some of the current human vaccines can cause adverse reactions in some individuals, which limits their use for massive vaccination program. Therefore, it is necessary to design optimal vaccine candidates that can elicit appropriate immune responses but do not induce side effects. Subunit vaccines are relatively safe for the vaccination of humans, but they are unable to trigger an optimal protective immune response without an adjuvant. Although different types of adjuvants have been used for the formulation of vaccines to fight pathogens that have high antigenic diversity, due to the toxicity and safety issues associated with human-specific adjuvants, there are only a few adjuvants that have been approved for the formulation of human vaccines. Recently, nanoparticles (NPs) have gain specific attention and are commonly used as adjuvants for vaccine development as well as for drug delivery due to their excellent immune modulation properties. This review will focus on the current state of adjuvants in vaccine development, the mechanisms of human-compatible adjuvants and future research directions. We hope this review will provide valuable information to discovery novel adjuvants and drug delivery systems for developing novel vaccines and treatments.

Current Advancements in Anti-Cancer Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cell Immunotherapy and How Nanotechnology May Change the Game

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell immunotherapy represents a cutting-edge advancement in the landscape of cancer treatment. This innovative therapy has shown exceptional promise in targeting and eradicating malignant tumors, specifically leukemias and lymphomas. However, despite its groundbreaking successes, (CAR)-T cell therapy is not without its challenges. These challenges, particularly pronounced in the treatment of solid tumors, include but are not limited to, the selection of appropriate tumor antigens, managing therapy-related toxicity, overcoming T-cell exhaustion, and addressing the substantial financial costs associated with treatment. Nanomedicine, an interdisciplinary field that merges nanotechnology with medical science, offers novel strategies that could potentially address these limitations. Its application in cancer treatment has already led to significant advancements, including improved specificity in drug targeting, advancements in cancer diagnostics, enhanced imaging techniques, and strategies for long-term cancer prevention. The integration of nanomedicine with (CAR)-T cell therapy could revolutionize the treatment landscape by enhancing the delivery of genes in (CAR)-T cell engineering, reducing systemic toxicity, and alleviating the immunosuppressive effects within the tumor microenvironment. This review aims to explore how far (CAR)-T cell immunotherapy has come alone, and how nanomedicine could strengthen it into the future. Additionally, the review will examine strategies to limit the off-target effects and systemic toxicity associated with (CAR)-T cell therapy, potentially enhancing patient tolerance and treatment outcomes.

Therapeutic Applications of Nanomedicine: Recent Developments and Future Perspectives

The concept of nanomedicine has evolved significantly in recent decades, leveraging the unique phenomenon known as the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. This has facilitated major advancements in targeted drug delivery, imaging, and individualized therapy through the integration of nanotechnology principles into medicine. Numerous nanomedicines have been developed and applied for disease treatment, with a particular focus on cancer therapy. Recently, nanomedicine has been utilized in various advanced fields, including diagnosis, vaccines, immunotherapy, gene delivery, and tissue engineering. Multifunctional nanomedicines facilitate concurrent medication delivery, therapeutic monitoring, and imaging, allowing for immediate responses and personalized treatment plans. This review concerns the major advancement of nanomaterials and their potential applications in the biological and medical fields. Along with this, we also mention the various clinical translations of nanomedicine and the major challenges that nanomedicine is currently facing to overcome the clinical translation barrier.

Nanodrug Delivery Systems in Antitumor Immunotherapy

Cancer has become one of the most important factors threatening human health, and the global cancer burden has been increasing rapidly. Immunotherapy has become another clinical research hotspot after surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy because of its high efficiency and tumor metastasis prevention. However, problems such as lower immune response rate and immune-related adverse reaction in the clinical application of immunotherapy need to be urgently solved. With the development of nanodrug delivery systems, various nanocarrier materials have been used in the research of antitumor immunotherapy with encouraging therapeutic results. In this review, we mainly summarized the combination of nanodrug delivery systems and immunotherapy from the following 4 aspects: (a) nanodrug delivery systems combined with cytokine therapy to improve cytokines delivery in vivo; (b) nanodrug delivery systems provided a suitable platform for the combination of immune checkpoint blockade therapy with other tumor treatments; (c) nanodrug delivery systems helped deliver antigens and adjuvants for tumor vaccines to enhance immune effects; and (d) nanodrug delivery systems improved tumor treatment efficiency and reduced toxicity for adoptive cell therapy. Nanomaterials chosen by researchers to construct nanodrug delivery systems and their function were also introduced in detail. Finally, we discussed the current challenges and future prospects in combining nanodrug delivery systems with immunotherapy.

Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles as an Ideal Platform for Cancer Immunotherapy: Recent Advances and Future Directions

Cancer immunotherapy recently transforms the traditional approaches against various cancer malignancies. Immunotherapy includes systemic and local treatments to enhance immune responses against cancer and involves strategies such as immune checkpoints, cancer vaccines, immune modulatory agents, mimetic antigen-presenting cells, and adoptive cell therapy. Despite promising results, these approaches still suffer from several limitations including lack of precise delivery of immune-modulatory agents to the target cells and off-target toxicity, among others, that can be overcome using nanotechnology. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are investigated to improve various aspects of cancer immunotherapy attributed to the advantageous structural features of this nanomaterial. MSNs can be engineered to alter their properties such as size, shape, porosity, surface functionality, and adjuvanticity. This review explores the immunological properties of MSNs and the use of MSNs as delivery vehicles for immune-adjuvants, vaccines, and mimetic antigen-presenting cells (APCs). The review also details the current strategies to remodel the tumor microenvironment to positively reciprocate toward the anti-tumor immune cells and the use of MSNs for immunotherapy in combination with other anti-tumor therapies including photodynamic/thermal therapies to enhance the therapeutic effect against cancer. Last, the present demands and future scenarios for the use of MSNs for cancer immunotherapy are discussed.

Enhanced Postsurgical Cancer Treatment Using Methacrylated Glycol Chitosan Hydrogel for Sustained DNA/Doxorubicin Delivery and Immunotherapy

Background: Cancer recurrence and metastasis are major contributors to treatment failure following tumor resection surgery. We developed a novel implantable drug delivery system utilizing glycol chitosan to address these issues. Glycol chitosan is a natural adjuvant, inducing dendritic cell activation to promote T helper 1 cell immune responses, macrophage activation, and cytokine production. Effective antigen production by dendritic cells initiates T-cell-mediated immune responses, aiding tumor growth control. Methods: In this study, we fabricated multifunctional methacrylated glycol chitosan (MGC) hydrogels with extended release of DNA/doxorubicin (DOX) complex for cancer immunotherapy. We constructed the resection model of breast cancer to verify the anticancer effects of MGC hydrogel with DNA/DOX complex. Results: This study demonstrated the potential of MGC hydrogel with extended release of DNA/DOX complex for local and efficient cancer therapy. The MGC hydrogel was implanted directly into the surgical site after tumor resection, activating tumor-related immune cells both locally and over a prolonged period of time through immune-reactive molecules. Conclusions: The MGC hydrogel effectively suppressed tumor recurrence and metastasis while enhancing immunotherapeutic efficacy and minimizing side effects. This biomaterial-based drug delivery system, combined with cancer immunotherapy, can substantial improve treatment outcomes and patient prognosis.

Nano-therapeutics: The upcoming nanomedicine to treat cancer

Nanotechnology is considered a successful approach for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Preferentially, cancer cell recognition and drug targeting via nano-delivery system include the penetration of anticancer agents into the cell membrane to damage the cancer cell by protein modification, DNA oxidation, or mitochondrial dysfunction. The past research on nano-delivery systems and their target has proven the beneficial achievement in a malignant tumor. Modern perceptions using inventive nanomaterials for cancer management have been offered by a multifunctional platform based on various nano-carriers with the probability of imaging and cancer therapy simultaneously. Emerging nano-delivery systems in cancer therapy still lack knowledge of the biological functions behind the interaction between nanoparticles and cancer cells. Since the potential of engineered nanoparticles addresses the various challenges, limiting the success of cancer therapy subsequently, it is a must to review the molecular targeting of a nano-delivery system to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of cancer. This review focuses on using a nano-delivery system, an imaging system, and encapsulated nanoparticles for cancer therapy.

Biosystem-Inspired Engineering of Nanozymes for Biomedical Applications

Nanozymes with intrinsic enzyme-mimicking activities have shown great potential to become surrogates of natural enzymes in many fields by virtue of their advantages of high catalytic stability, ease of functionalization, and low cost. However, due to the lack of predictable descriptors, most of the nanozymes reported in the past have been obtained mainly through trial-and-error strategies, and the catalytic efficacy, substrate specificity, as well as practical application effect under physiological conditions, are far inferior to that of natural enzymes. To optimize the catalytic efficacies and functions of nanozymes in biomedical settings, recent studies have introduced biosystem-inspired strategies into nanozyme design. In this review, recent advances in the engineering of biosystem-inspired nanozymes by leveraging the refined catalytic structure of natural enzymes, simulating the behavior changes of natural enzymes in the catalytic process, and mimicking the specific biological processes or living organisms, are introduced. Furthermore, the currently involved biomedical applications of biosystem-inspired nanozymes are summarized. More importantly, the current opportunities and challenges of the design and application of biosystem-inspired nanozymes are discussed. It is hoped that the studies of nanozymes based on bioinspired strategies will be beneficial for constructing the new generation of nanozymes and broadening their biomedical applications.

Mycosynthesis of selenium nanoparticles using Penicillium tardochrysogenum as a therapeutic agent and their combination with infrared irradiation against Ehrlich carcinoma

Over the past years, the assessment of myco-fabricated selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) properties, is still in its infancy. Herein, we have highly stable myco-synthesized SeNPs using molecularly identified soil-isolated fungus; Penicillium tardochrysogenum OR059437; (PeSeNPs) were clarified via TEM, EDX, UV-Vis spectrophotometer, FTIR and zeta potential. The therapeutic efficacy profile will be determined, these crystalline PeSeNPs were examined for antioxidant, antimicrobial, MIC, and anticancer potentials, indicating that, PeSeNPs have antioxidant activity of (IC50, 109.11 μg/mL) using DPPH free radical scavenging assay. Also, PeSeNPs possess antimicrobial potential against Penicillium italicum RCMB 001,018 (1) IMI 193,019, Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) ATCC 4330 and Porphyromonas gingivalis RCMB 022,001 (1) EMCC 1699; with I.Z. diameters and MIC; 16 ± 0.5 mm and MIC 500 µg/ml, 11.9 ± 0.6 mm, 500 µg/ml and 15.9±0.6 mm, 1000 µg/ml, respectively. Additionally, TEM micrographs were taken for P. italicum treated with PeSeNPs, demonstrating the destruction of hyphal membrane and internal organelles integrity, pores formation, and cell death. PeSeNP alone in vivo and combined with a near-infrared physiotherapy lamp with an energy intensity of 140 mW/cm2 showed a strong therapeutic effect against cancer cells. Thus, PeSeNPs represent anticancer agents and a suitable photothermal option for treating different kinds of cancer cells with lower toxicity and higher efficiency than normal cells. The combination therapy showed a very large and significant reduction in tumor volume, the tumor cells showed large necrosis, shrank, and disappeared. There was also improvement in liver ultrastructure, liver enzymes, and histology, as well as renal function, urea, and creatinine.

Nanoparticle-based immunoengineering strategies for enhancing cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy is a groundbreaking strategy that has revolutionized the field of oncology compared to other therapeutic strategies, such as surgery, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy. However, cancer complexity, tumor heterogeneity, and immune escape have become the main hurdles to the clinical application of immunotherapy. Moreover, conventional immunotherapies cause many harmful side effects owing to hyperreactivity in patients, long treatment durations and expensive cost. Nanotechnology is considered a transformative approach that enhances the potency of immunotherapy by capitalizing on the superior physicochemical properties of nanocarriers, creating highly targeted tissue delivery systems. These advantageous features include a substantial specific surface area, which enhances the interaction with the immune system. In addition, the capability to finely modify surface chemistry enables the achievement of controlled and sustained release properties. These advances have significantly increased the potential of immunotherapy, making it more powerful than ever before. In this review, we introduce recent nanocarriers for application in cancer immunotherapy based on strategies that target different main immune cells, including T cells, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, and tumor-associated macrophages. We also provide an overview of the role and significance of nanotechnology in cancer immunotherapy.

Systematic Multiomic Analysis of PKHD1L1 Gene Expression and Its Role as a Predicting Biomarker for Immune Cell Infiltration in Skin Cutaneous Melanoma and Lung Adenocarcinoma

The identification of genetic factors that regulate the cancer immune microenvironment is important for understanding the mechanism of tumor progression and establishing an effective treatment strategy. Polycystic kidney and hepatic disease 1-like protein 1 (PKHD1L1) is a large transmembrane protein that is highly expressed in immune cells; however, its association with tumor progression remains unclear. Here, we systematically analyzed the clinical relevance of PKHD1L1 in the tumor microenvironment in multiple cancer types using various bioinformatic tools. We found that the PKHD1L1 mRNA expression levels were significantly lower in skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) and lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) than in normal tissues. The decreased expression of PKHD1L1 was significantly associated with unfavorable overall survival (OS) in SKCM and LUAD. Additionally, PKHD1L1 expression was positively correlated with the levels of infiltrating B cells, cluster of differentiation (CD)-8+ T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells, suggesting that the infiltration of immune cells could be associated with a good prognosis due to increased PKHD1L1 expression. Gene ontology (GO) analysis also revealed the relationship between PKHD1L1-co-altered genes and the activation of lymphocytes, including B and T cells. Collectively, this study shows that PKHD1L1 expression is positively correlated with a good prognosis via the induction of immune infiltration, suggesting that PKHD1L1 has potential prognostic value in SKCM and LUAD.

Self-Assembled Nanobiomaterials for Combination Immunotherapy

Nanotechnological interventions for cancer immunotherapy are a rapidly evolving paradigm with immense potential. Self-assembled nanobiomaterials present safer alternatives to their nondegradable counterparts and pose better functionalities in terms of controlled drug delivery and phototherapy to activate immunogenic cell death. In this Review, we discuss several classes of self-assembled nanobiomaterials based on polymers, lipids, peptides, hydrogel, metal organic frameworks, and covalent-organic frameworks with the ability to activate systemic immune response and convert a "cold" immunosuppressive tumor mass to a "hot" antitumor immune cell rich microenvironment. The unique aspects of these materials are underpinned, and their mechanisms of combinatorial immunotherapeutic action are discussed. Future challenges associated with their clinical translation are also highlighted.

Immunotherapy: Constructive Approach for Breast Cancer Treatment

A novel and rapid therapeutic approach is the treatment of human breast cancer by enhancing the host's immune system. In initial findings, program death one (PD-1) and program cell death ligand one (PD-L1) showed positive results towards solid tumors, but tumor relapse and drug resistance are the major concerns. Breast cancer therapy has been transformed by the advent of immune checkpoint blockades (ICBs). Triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs) have exhibited enduring responses to clinical usage of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICBs) like atezolizumab and pembrolizumab. Nonetheless, a notable proportion of individuals with TNBC do not experience advantages from these treatments, and there is limited comprehension of the resistance mechanisms. Another approach to overcome resistance is cancer stem cells (CSCs), as these cells are crucial for the initiation and growth of tumors in the body. Various cancer vaccines are created using stem cells (dendritic, whole cell, bacterial) and focus primarily on targeting tumor-related antigens. The ultimate objective of cancer vaccines is to immunize the patients by active artificial immunity against cancer, though. In this review, we primarily focused on existing immunotherapeutic options, immune checkpoint blockers, the latest progress in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying resistance to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICBs), advanced strategies to overcome resistance to ICBs, cancer stem cell antigens and molecular markers, ongoing clinical trials for BCs and cancer vaccines for breast cancer.

A novel self-assembled nucleobase-nanofiber platform of CDN to activate the STING pathway for synergistic cancer immunotherapy

2', 3'-cGAMP (CDN) as cGAS-STING pathway agonist is extensively used in tumor treatment. However, due to its negatively charged nature (containing two phosphate groups) and high hydrophilicity, CDN faces challenges in crossing cell membranes, resulting in reduced efficiency of its use. Additionally, CDN is susceptible to inactivation through phosphodiesterase hydrolysis. Therefore, the development of a new drug delivery system for CDN is necessary to prevent hydrolysis and enhance targeted accumulation in tumors, as well as improve cellular uptake for STING activation. In this study, we have developed peptide-polymer nanofibers (PEG-Q11) that incorporate thymine (T) and arginine (R) residues to facilitate complexation with CDN through the principles of Watson-Crick base pairing with thymine and favorable electrostatic interactions and bidentate hydrogen bonding with arginine side chains. The entrapment efficiency (EE) of PEG-Q11T3R4@CDN was found to be 51% higher than that of PEG-Q11@CDN. Due to its favorable biocompatibility, PEG-Q11T3R4@CDN was employed for immunotherapy in mouse CT26 tumors. In local tumor treatment, the administration of PEG-Q11T3R4@CDN at a low dose and through a single injection exhibited inhibitory effects. Furthermore, the local injection of PEG-Q11T3R4@CDN resulted in systemic therapeutic responses, effectively suppressing tumor metastasis by activating CD8 + T cells to target distant tumors. This research not only underscores the potential of PEG-Q11T3R4@CDN as an efficient therapeutic agent but also highlights its ability to achieve long-lasting systemic therapeutic outcomes following local treatment. Consequently, PEG-Q11T3R4@CDN represents a promising strategy for immunization.

Nanotargeted Delivery of Immune Therapeutics in Type 1 Diabetes

Immune therapeutics holds great promise in the treatment of type 1 diabetes (T1D). Nonetheless, their progress is hampered by limited efficacy, equipoise, or issues of safety. To address this, a novel and specific nanodelivery platform for T1D that targets high endothelial venules (HEVs) presented in the pancreatic lymph nodes (PLNs) and pancreas is developed. Data indicate that the pancreata of nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice and patients with T1D are unique in their expression of newly formed HEVs. Anti-CD3 mAb is encapsulated in poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-poly(ethylene glycol) nanoparticles (NPs), the surfaces of which are conjugated with MECA79 mAb that recognizes HEVs. Targeted delivery of these NPs improves accumulation of anti-CD3 mAb in both the PLNs and pancreata of NOD mice. Treatment of hyperglycemic NOD mice with MECA79-anti-CD3-NPs results in significant reversal of T1D compared to those that are untreated, treated with empty NPs, or provided free anti-CD3. This effect is associated with a significant reduction of T effector cell populations in the PLNs and a decreased production of pro-inflammatory cytokine in the mice treated with MECA79-anti-CD3-NPs. In summary, HEV-targeted therapeutics may be used as a means by which immune therapeutics can be delivered to PLNs and pancreata to suppress autoimmune diabetes effectively.

Physiological determinants and plausible '6R' roadmap for clinical success of nanomedicines

Despite the promising features and aggressive research, the success of nanoparticles in clinical trials is minimal. This manuscript discusses the complex biological barriers that impede the journey of nanoparticles to the target site and the approaches used to overcome them. The '6R' framework (right route, right target, right design, right patient, right combination and right technology) is proposed to improve the clinical translation of nanomedicines. Disease-driven approach contrary to the traditional formulation-driven approach is suggested. Data-driven methods can analyze the relationships between various diseases, patient pathophysiology and the physicochemical properties of different nanomedicines, aiding in the precise selection of the most appropriate treatment options. Further research is needed to evaluate and refine these approaches to develop nanomedicines for clinical success.

Programmed T cells infiltration into lung metastases with harnessing dendritic cells in cancer immunotherapies by catalytic antigen-capture sponges

T lymphocytes served as immune surveillance to suppress metastases by physically interacting with cancer cells. Whereas tumor immune privilege and heterogeneity protect immune attack, it limits immune cell infiltration into tumors, especially in invasive metastatic clusters. Here, a catalytic antigen-capture sponge (CAS) containing the catechol-functionalized copper-based metal organic framework (MOF) and chloroquine (CQ) for programming T cells infiltration is reported. The intravenously injected CAS accumulates at the tumor via the folic acid-mediated target and margination effect. In metastases, Fenton-like reaction induced by copper ions of CAS disrupts the intracellular redox potential, i.e., chemodynamic therapy (CDT), thereby reducing glutathione (GSH) levels. Furthermore, CQ helps inhibit autophagy by inducing lysosomal deacidification during CDT. This process leads to the breakdown of self-defense mechanisms, which exacerbates cytotoxicity. The therapies promote the liberation of tumor-associated antigens, such as neoantigens and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Subsequently, the catechol groups present on CAS perform as antigen reservoirs and transport the autologous tumor-associated antigens to dendritic cells, resulting in prolonged immune activation. The CAS, which is capable of forming in-situ, serves as an antigen reservoir in CDT-mediated lung metastasis and leads to the accumulation of immune cells in metastatic clusters, thus hindering metastatic tumors.

Metallic Nanoparticles: Their Potential Role in Breast Cancer Immunotherapy via Trained Immunity Provocation

Owing to drawbacks in the current common cancer therapies including surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, the development of more reliable, low toxic, cost-effective and specific approaches such as immunotherapy is crucial. Breast cancer is among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality with a developed anticancer resistance. Accordingly, we attempted to uncover the efficacy of metallic nanoparticles (MNPs)-based breast cancer immunotherapy emphasizing trained immunity provocation or innate immunity adaptation. Due to the immunosuppressive nature of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and the poor infiltration of immune cells, the potentiation of an immune response or direct combat is a goal employing NPs as a burgeoning field. During the recent decades, the adaptation of the innate immunity responses against infectious diseases and cancer has been recognized. Although the data is in a scarcity with regard to a trained immunity function in breast cancer cells' elimination, this study introduced the potential of this arm of immunity adaptation using MNPs.

Combining in situ vaccination and immunogenic apoptosis to treat cancer

Immunization approaches are designed to stimulate the immune system and eliminate the tumor. Studies indicate that cancer immunization combined with certain chemotherapeutics and immunostimulatory agents can improve outcomes. Chemotherapeutics-based immunogenic cell death makes the tumor more recognizable by the immune system. In situ vaccination (ISV) utilizes established tumors as antigen sources and directly applies an immune adjuvant to the tumor to reverse a cold tumor microenvironment to a hot one. Immunogenic cell death and ISV highlight for the immune system the tumor antigens that are recognizable by immune cells and support a T-cell attack of the tumor cells. This review presents the concept of immunogenic apoptosis and ISV as a powerful platform for cancer immunization.

Nanoparticle-Based Chimeric Antigen Receptor Therapy for Cancer Immunotherapy

Adoptive cell therapy with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-engineered T cells (CAR-Ts) has emerged as an innovative immunotherapy for hematological cancer treatment. However, the limited effect on solid tumors, complex processes, and excessive manufacturing costs remain as limitations of CAR-T therapy. Nanotechnology provides an alternative to the conventional CAR-T therapy. Owing to their unique physicochemical properties, nanoparticles can not only serve as a delivery platform for drugs but also target specific cells. Nanoparticle-based CAR therapy can be applied not only to T cells but also to CAR-natural killer and CAR-macrophage, compensating for some of their limitations. This review focuses on the introduction of nanoparticle-based advanced CAR immune cell therapy and future perspectives on immune cell reprogramming.

Nanoparticles in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer metastases: Current and future perspectives

Metastasis accounts for greater than 90% of cancer-related deaths. Despite recent advancements in conventional chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and their rational combinations, metastatic cancers remain essentially untreatable. The distinct obstacles to treat metastases include their small size, high multiplicity, redundancy, therapeutic resistance, and dissemination to multiple organs. Recent advancements in nanotechnology provide the numerous applications in the diagnosis and prophylaxis of metastatic diseases, including the small particle size to penetrate cell membrane and blood vessels and their capacity to transport complex molecular 'cargo' particles to various metastatic regions such as bones, brain, liver, lungs, and lymph nodes. Indeed, nanoparticles (NPs) have demonstrated a significant ability to target specific cells within these organs. In this regard, the purpose of this review is to summarize the present state of nanotechnology in terms of its application in the diagnosis and treatment of metastatic cancer. We intensively reviewed applications of NPs in fluorescent imaging, PET scanning, MRI, and photoacoustic imaging to detect metastasis in various cancer models. The use of targeted NPs for cancer ablation in conjunction with chemotherapy, photothermal treatment, immuno therapy, and combination therapy is thoroughly discussed. The current review also highlights the research opportunities and challenges of leveraging engineering technologies with cancer cell biology and pharmacology to fabricate nanoscience-based tools for treating metastases.

Recent advancements in immunotherapy of melanoma using nanotechnology-based strategies

Melanoma is a malignant tumor that accounts for the deadliest form of skin cancers. Despite the significant efforts made recently for development of immunotherapeutic strategies including using immune checkpoint inhibitors and cancer vaccines, the clinical outcomes are unsatisfying. Different factors affect efficient cancer immunotherapy such as side-effects, immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, and tumor heterogeneity. In the past decades, various nanotechnology-based approaches have been developed to enhance the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy, in addition to diminishing the toxicity associated with it. Several studies have shown that proper application of nanomaterials can revolutionize the outcome of immunotherapy in diverse melanoma models. This review summarizes the recent advancement in the integration of nanotechnology and cancer immunotherapy in melanoma treatment. The importance of nanomaterials and their therapeutic advantages for patients with melanoma are also discussed.

Liposome-based diagnostic and therapeutic applications for pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer is one of the harshest and most challenging cancers to treat, often labeled as incurable. Chemotherapy continues to be the most popular treatment yet yields a very poor prognosis. The main barriers such as inefficient drug penetration and drug resistance, have led to the development of drug carrier systems. The benefits, ease of fabrication and modification of liposomes render them as ideal future drug delivery systems. This review delves into the versatility of liposomes to achieve various mechanisms of treatment for pancreatic cancer. Not only are there benefits of loading chemotherapy drugs and targeting agents onto liposomes, as well as mRNA combined therapy, but liposomes have also been exploited for immunotherapy and can be programmed to respond to photothermal therapy. Multifunctional liposomal formulations have demonstrated significant pre-clinical success. Functionalising drug-encapsulated liposomes has resulted in triggered drug release, specific targeting, and remodeling of the tumor environment. Suppressing tumor progression has been achieved, due to their ability to more efficiently and precisely deliver chemotherapy. Currently, no multifunctional surface-modified liposomes are clinically approved for pancreatic cancer thus we aim to shed light on the trials and tribulations and progress so far, with the hope for liposomal therapy in the future and improved patient outcomes. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Considering that conventional treatments for pancreatic cancer are highly associated with sub-optimal performance and systemic toxicity, the development of novel therapeutic strategies holds outmost relevance for pancreatic cancer management. Liposomes are being increasingly considered as promising nanocarriers for providing not only an early diagnosis but also effective, highly specific, and safer treatment, improving overall patient outcome. This manuscript is the first in the last 10 years that revises the advances in the application of liposome-based formulations in bioimaging, chemotherapy, phototherapy, immunotherapy, combination therapies, and emergent therapies for pancreatic cancer management. Prospective insights are provided regarding several advantages resulting from the use of liposome technology in precision strategies, fostering new ideas for next-generation diagnosis and targeted therapies of pancreatic cancer.

Hybrid Nanomaterials for Cancer Immunotherapy

Nano-immunotherapy has been recognized as a highly promising strategy for cancer treatment in recent decades, which combines nanotechnology and immunotherapy to combat against tumors. Hybrid nanomaterials consisting of at least two constituents with distinct compositions and properties, usually organic and inorganic, have been engineered with integrated functions and enormous potential in boosting cancer immunotherapy. This review provides a summary of hybrid nanomaterials reported for cancer immunotherapy, including nanoscale metal-organic frameworks, metal-phenolic networks, mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles, metallofullerene nanomaterials, polymer-lipid, and biomacromolecule-based hybrid nanomaterials. The combination of immunotherapy with chemotherapy, chemodynamic therapy, radiotherapy, radiodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, and sonodynamic therapy based on hybrid nanomaterials is also discussed. Finally, the current challenges and the prospects for designing hybrid nanomaterials and their application in cancer immunotherapy are outlined.

Reprogramming the tumor microenvironment with biotechnology

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a unique environment that is developed by the tumor and controlled by tumor-induced interactions with host cells during tumor progression. The TME includes immune cells, which can be classified into two types: tumor- antagonizing and tumor-promoting immune cells. Increasing the tumor treatment responses is associated with the tumor immune microenvironment. Targeting the TME has become a popular topic in research, which includes polarizing macrophage phenotype 2 into macrophage phenotype 1 using Toll-like receptor agonists with cytokines, anti-CD47, and anti-SIPRα. Moreover, inhibiting regulatory T cells through blockades and depletion restricts immunosuppressive cells in the TME. Reprogramming T cell infiltration and T cell exhaustion improves tumor infiltrating lymphocytes, such as CD8⁺ or CD4⁺ T cells. Targeting metabolic pathways, including glucose, lipid, and amino acid metabolisms, can suppress tumor growth by restricting the absorption of nutrients and adenosine triphosphate energy into tumor cells. In conclusion, these TME reprogramming strategies exhibit more effective responses using combination treatments, biomaterials, and nanoparticles. This review highlights how biomaterials and immunotherapy can reprogram TME and improve the immune activity.

Exosomes: A potential tool for immunotherapy of ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer is a malignant tumor of the female reproductive system, with a very poor prognosis and high mortality rates. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are the most common treatments for ovarian cancer, with unsatisfactory results. Exosomes are a subpopulation of extracellular vesicles, which have a diameter of approximately 30-100 nm and are secreted by many different types of cells in various body fluids. Exosomes are highly stable and are effective carriers of immunotherapeutic drugs. Recent studies have shown that exosomes are involved in various cellular responses in the tumor microenvironment, influencing the development and therapeutic efficacy of ovarian cancer, and exhibiting dual roles in inhibiting and promoting tumor development. Exosomes also contain a variety of genes related to ovarian cancer immunotherapy that could be potential biomarkers for ovarian cancer diagnosis and prognosis. Undoubtedly, exosomes have great therapeutic potential in the field of ovarian cancer immunotherapy. However, translation of this idea to the clinic has not occurred. Therefore, it is important to understand how exosomes could be used in ovarian cancer immunotherapy to regulate tumor progression. In this review, we summarize the biomarkers of exosomes in different body fluids related to immunotherapy in ovarian cancer and the potential mechanisms by which exosomes influence immunotherapeutic response. We also discuss the prospects for clinical application of exosome-based immunotherapy in ovarian cancer.

Facile Green Synthesis of Ni(OH)2@Mn3O4 Cactus-Type Nanocomposite: Characterization and Cytotoxicity Properties

In the present work, the facile eco-friendly synthesis and evaluation of the anti-tumor activity of Ni(OH)₂@Mn₃O₄ nanocomposite were carried out. The synthesis of Ni(OH)₂@Mn₃O₄ nanocomposite from chia-seed extract was mediated by sonication. The obtained materials were characterized by different spectroscopic techniques such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis), and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopies. The results of XRD, SEM, EDS, TEM, FT-IR, and UV-Vis analysis indicate the successful manufacturing of a crystalline, cactus-type Ni(OH)₂@Mn₃O₄ nanocomposite of 10.10 nm average particle size. XPS analysis confirms that the synthesized materials consist mainly of Ni²⁺, Mn²⁺, and Mn³⁺. The antitumor activity of the nanocomposite was tested against a breast cancer (MCF-7) cell line. The results showed Ni(OH)₂@Mn₃O₄ nanocomposite possesses insignificant cytotoxicity. The cell-death percentage was 34% at a 100 ppm concentration of Ni(OH)₂@Mn₃O₄ nanocomposite. The obtained results imply that the synthesized nanocomposite could be suitable and safe for drug delivery and water treatment.

Remodeling tumor microenvironment with natural products to overcome drug resistance

With cancer incidence rates continuing to increase and occurrence of resistance in drug treatment, there is a pressing demand to find safer and more effective anticancer strategy for cancer patients. Natural products, have the advantage of low toxicity and multiple action targets, are always used in the treatment of cancer prevention in early stage and cancer supplement in late stage. Tumor microenvironment is necessary for cancer cells to survive and progression, and immune activation is a vital means for the tumor microenvironment to eliminate cancer cells. A number of studies have found that various natural products could target and regulate immune cells such as T cells, macrophages, mast cells as well as inflammatory cytokines in the tumor microenvironment. Natural products tuning the tumor microenvironment via various mechanisms to activate the immune response have immeasurable potential for cancer immunotherapy. In this review, it highlights the research findings related to natural products regulating immune responses against cancer, especially reveals the possibility of utilizing natural products to remodel the tumor microenvironment to overcome drug resistance.

Biomimetic nanoparticles for tumor immunotherapy

Currently, tumor treatment research still focuses on the cancer cells themselves, but the fact that the immune system plays an important role in inhibiting tumor development cannot be ignored. The activation of the immune system depends on the difference between self and non-self. Unfortunately, cancer is characterized by genetic changes in the host cells that lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and evade immune surveillance. Cancer immunotherapy aims to coordinate a patient's immune system to target, fight, and destroy cancer cells without destroying the normal cells. Nevertheless, antitumor immunity driven by the autoimmune system alone may be inadequate for treatment. The development of drug delivery systems (DDS) based on nanoparticles can not only promote immunotherapy but also improve the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITM), which provides promising strategies for cancer treatment. However, conventional nano drug delivery systems (NDDS) are subject to several limitations in clinical transformation, such as immunogenicity and the potential toxicity risks of the carrier materials, premature drug leakage at off-target sites during circulation and drug load content. In order to address these limitations, this paper reviews the trends and progress of biomimetic NDDS and discusses the applications of each biomimetic system in tumor immunotherapy. Furthermore, we review the various combination immunotherapies based on biomimetic NDDS and key considerations for clinical transformation.

Current advances in the use of exosomes, liposomes, and bioengineered hybrid nanovesicles in cancer detection and therapy

Three major approaches of cancer therapy can be enunciated as delivery of biotherapeutics, tumor image analysis, and immunotherapy. Liposomes, artificial fat bubbles, are long known for their capacity to encapsulate a diverse range of bioactive molecules and release the payload in a sustained, stimuli-responsive manner. They have already been widely explored as a delivery vehicle for therapeutic drugs as well as imaging agents. They are also extensively being used in cancer immunotherapy. On the other hand, exosomes are naturally occurring nanosized extracellular vesicles that serve an important role in cell-cell communication. Importantly, the exosomes also have proven their capability to carry an array of active pharmaceuticals and diagnostic molecules to the tumor cells. Exosomes, being enriched with tumor antigens, have numerous immunomodulatory effects. Much to our intrigue, in recent times, efforts have been directed toward developing smart, bioengineered, exosome-liposome hybrid nanovesicles, which are augmented by the benefits of both vesicular systems. This review attempts to summarize the contemporary developments in the use of exosome and liposome toward cancer diagnosis, therapy, as a vehicle for drug delivery, diagnostic carrier for tumor imaging, and cancer immunotherapy. We shall also briefly reflect upon the recent advancements of the exosome-liposome hybrids in cancer therapy. Finally, we put forward future directions for the use of exosome/liposome and/or hybrid nanocarriers for accurate diagnosis and personalized therapies for cancers.

Recent Advances in Copper-Based Organic Complexes and Nanoparticles for Tumor Theranostics

Treatment of drug-resistant forms of cancer requires consideration of their hallmark features, such as abnormal cell death mechanisms or mutations in drug-responding molecular pathways. Malignant cells differ from their normal counterparts in numerous aspects, including copper metabolism. Intracellular copper levels are elevated in various cancer types, and this phenomenon could be employed for the development of novel oncotherapeutic approaches. Copper maintains the cell oxidation levels, regulates the protein activity and metabolism, and is involved in inflammation. Various copper-based compounds, such as nanoparticles or metal-based organic complexes, show specific activity against cancer cells according to preclinical studies. Herein, we summarize the major principles of copper metabolism in cancer cells and its potential in cancer theranostics.

Advances in Nanotechnology for Cancer Immunoprevention and Immunotherapy: A Review

One of the most effective cancer therapies, cancer immunotherapy has produced outstanding outcomes in the field of cancer treatment. However, the cost is excessive, which limits its applicability. A smart way to address this issue would be to apply the knowledge gained through immunotherapy to develop strategies for the immunoprevention of cancer. The use of cancer vaccines is one of the most popular methods of immunoprevention. This paper reviews the technologies and processes that support the advantages of cancer immunoprevention over traditional cancer immunotherapies. Nanoparticle drug delivery systems and nanoparticle-based nano-vaccines have been employed in the past for cancer immunotherapy. This paper outlines numerous immunoprevention strategies and how nanotechnology can be applied in immunoprevention. To comprehend the non-clinical and clinical evaluation of these cancer vaccines through clinical studies is essential for acceptance of the vaccines.

Light-activated nanomaterials for tumor immunotherapy

Tumor immunotherapy mainly relies on activating the immune system to achieve antitumor treatment. However, the present tumor immunotherapy used in the clinic showed low treatment efficacy with high systematic toxicity. To overcome the shortcomings of traditional drugs for immunotherapy, a series of antitumor immunotherapies based on nanomaterials have been developed to enhance the body’s antitumor immune response and reduce systematic toxicity. Due to the noninvasiveness, remote controllability, and high temporal and spatial resolution of light, photocontrolled nanomaterials irradiated by excitation light have been widely used in drug delivery and photocontrolled switching. This review aims to highlight recent advances in antitumor immunotherapy based on photocontrolled nanomaterials. We emphasized the advantages of nanocomposites for antitumor immunotherapy and highlighted the latest progress of antitumor immunotherapy based on photoactivated nanomaterials. Finally, the challenges and future prospects of light-activated nanomaterials in antitumor immunity are discussed.

Highly tailorable gellan gum nanoparticles as a platform for the development of T cell activator systems

Background

T cell priming has been shown to be a powerful immunotherapeutic approach for cancer treatment in terms of efficacy and relatively weak side effects. Systems that optimize the stimulation of T cells to improve therapeutic efficacy are therefore in constant demand. A way to achieve this is through artificial antigen presenting cells that are complexes between vehicles and key molecules that target relevant T cell subpopulations, eliciting antigen-specific T cell priming. In such T cell activator systems, the vehicles chosen to deliver and present the key molecules to the targeted cell populations are of extreme importance. In this work, a new platform for the creation of T cell activator systems based on highly tailorable nanoparticles made from the natural polymer gellan gum (GG) was developed and validated.

Methods

GG nanoparticles were produced by a water in oil emulsion procedure, and characterized by dynamic light scattering, high resolution scanning electronic microscopy and water uptake. Their biocompatibility with cultured cells was assessed by a metabolic activity assay. Surface functionalization was performed with anti-CD3/CD28 antibodies via EDC/NHS or NeutrAvidin/Biotin linkage. Functionalized particles were tested for their capacity to stimulate CD4⁺ T cells and trigger T cell cytotoxic responses.

Results

Nanoparticles were approximately 150 nm in size, with a stable structure and no detectable cytotoxicity. Water uptake originated a weight gain of up to 3200%. The functional antibodies did efficiently bind to the nanoparticles, as confirmed by SDS-PAGE, which then targeted the desired CD4⁺ populations, as confirmed by confocal microscopy. The developed system presented a more sustained T cell activation over time when compared to commercial alternatives. Concurrently, the expression of higher levels of key cytotoxic pathway molecules granzyme B/perforin was induced, suggesting a greater cytotoxic potential for future application in adoptive cancer therapy.

Conclusions

Our results show that GG nanoparticles were successfully used as a highly tailorable T cell activator system platform capable of T cell expansion and re-education.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40824-022-00297-z.

Nanoparticle-based immunotherapy of pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer (PC) has a complex and unique tumor microenvironment (TME). Due to the physical barrier formed by the desmoplastic stroma, the delivery of drugs to the tumor tissue is limited. The TME also contributes to resistance to various immunotherapies such as cancer vaccines, chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors. Overcoming and/or modulating the TME is therefore one of the greatest challenges in developing new therapeutic strategies for PC. Nanoparticles have been successfully used as drug carriers and delivery systems in cancer therapy. Recent experimental and engineering developments in nanotechnology have resulted in increased drug delivery and improved immunotherapy for PC. In this review we discuss and analyze the current nanoparticle-based immunotherapy approaches that are at the verge of clinical application. Particularly, we focus on nanoparticle-based delivery systems that improve the effectiveness of PC immunotherapy. We also highlight current clinical research that will help to develop new therapeutic strategies for PC and especially targeted immunotherapies based on immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Assessment of mechanism involved in the apoptotic and anti-cancer activity of Quercetin and Quercetin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles

In prior studies, Quercetin was revealed to exhibit anti-cancer features in a variety of cancer cell lines. However, the impact of Quercetin on neuroblastoma is unknown. This study looked into the potential cytotoxic effects of Quercetin and Quercetin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (NPs) on the SH-SY5Y cell line. In this study, NPs containing Quercetin was prepared and characterization studies were performed. The vitality of the cells was measured using the XTT test after 24 h of treatment with various concentrations of Quercetin (0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 µg/mL). ELISA kits were used to detect the amounts of cleaved PARP, BCL-2, 8-Hydroxy-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG), cleaved caspase 3, Bax, total oxidant status, and total antioxidant status in the cells. The results of the chitosan NPs characterization investigation revealed that the particle size, encapsulation effectiveness, and drug release profile of NPs were all appropriate for cell culture studies. Quercetin and Quercetin-loaded chitosan NPs significantly reduced cell viability in SH-SY5Y cells at different concentrations (**p < 0.05). 2 µg/mL Quercetin and Quercetin-loaded chitosan NPs significantly enhanced the levels of 8-oxo-dG, cleaved caspase 3, Bax, cleaved PARP, and total oxidant in ELISA testing. However, treatment with 2 µg/mL of Quercetin and Quercetin-loaded chitosan NPs did not affect the amount of BCL-2 protein. Overall, Quercetin and Quercetin-loaded chitosan NPs caused significant cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells via producing oxidative stress, DNA damage, and eventually apoptosis.

The anticancer properties of metal-organic frameworks and their heterogeneous nanocomposites

Herein, silver-based metal-organic framework (AgMOF) and its graphene oxide (GO)-decorated nanocomposite (GO-AgMOF) are proposed for use in emerging biomedical applications. The nanocomposites are characterized, and hence, in vitro apoptotic and antibacterial features of AgMOF and GO-AgMOF nanomaterials were investigated. An MTT cytocompatibility assay indicates that these nanomaterials have dose-dependent toxicity in contact with SW480, colon adenocarcinoma cells. In addition, the cell death mechanism was explored by analyzing flow cytometry and caspase activity. Furthermore, the expressions of pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes were investigated using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Comparing the control group with the groups treated by the nanomaterials indicates up-regulation of the BAX/BCl2 ratio. We also measured the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bacterial concentration (MBC) of these nanomaterials acting on S. mutans and S. aureus, which indicates excellent antibacterial properties. Showing inhibition effect on the viability of cancerous cells through apoptosis and antibacterial effects simultaneously, AgMOF and GO-AgMOF can be regarded as potential therapeutics for cancer.

Application of Nanoparticles in Tumour Targeted Drug Delivery and Vaccine

Cancer is a major cause of death worldwide, and nearly 1 in 6 deaths each year is caused by cancer. Traditional cancer treatment strategies cannot completely solve cancer recurrence and metastasis. With the development of nanotechnology, the study of nanoparticles (NPs) has gradually become a hotspot of medical research. NPs have various advantages. NPs exploit the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) of tumour cells to achieve targeted drug delivery and can be retained in tumours long-term. NPs can be used as a powerful design platform for vaccines as well as immunization enhancers. Liposomes, as organic nanomaterials, are widely used in the preparation of nanodrugs and vaccines. Currently, most of the anticancer drugs that have been approved and entered clinical practice are prepared from lipid materials. However, the current clinical conversion rate of NPs is still extremely low, and the transition of NPs from the laboratory to clinical practice is still a substantial challenge. In this paper, we review the in vivo targeted delivery methods, material characteristics of NPs and the application of NPs in vaccine preparation. The application of nanoliposomes is also emphasized. Furthermore, the challenges and limitations of NPs are briefly discussed.

Advanced iron oxide nanotheranostics for multimodal and precision treatment of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Despite current advances in new approaches for cancer detection and treatment, pancreatic cancer remains one of the most lethal cancer types. Difficult to detect early, aggressive tumor biology, and resistance to chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy result in a poor prognosis of pancreatic cancer patients with a 5-year survival of 10%. With advances in cancer nanotechnology, new imaging and drug delivery approaches that allow the development of multifunctional nanotheranostic agents offer opportunities for improving pancreatic cancer treatment using precision oncology. In this review, we will introduce potential applications of innovative theranostic strategies to address major challenges in the treatment of pancreatic cancer at different disease stages. Several important issues concerning targeted delivery of theranostic nanoparticles and tumor stromal barriers are discussed. We then focus on the development of a magnetic iron oxide nanoparticle platform for multimodal therapy of pancreatic cancer, including MRI monitoring targeted nanoparticle/drug delivery, therapeutic response, and tumor re-staging, activation of tumor immune response by immunoactivating nanoparticle and magnetic hyperthermia therapy, and intraoperative interventions for improving the outcome of targeted therapy. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Diagnostic Tools > In Vivo Nanodiagnostics and Imaging.

Targeting Cancer Stem Cells: Therapeutic and diagnostic strategies by the virtue of nanoparticles

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are the subpopulation of cells present within a tumor with the properties of self-renewing, differentiating, and proliferating. Owing to the presence of ATP-binding cassette drug pumps and increased expression of anti-apoptotic proteins, the conventional chemotherapeutic agents have failed to eliminate CSCs resulting in relapse and resistance of cancer. Therefore, to obtain long-lasting clinical responses and avoid the recurrence of cancer, it is crucial to develop an efficient strategy targeting CSCs by either employing a differentiation therapy or specifically delivering drugs to CSCs. Several intracellular and extracellular cancer specific biomarkers are overexpressed by CSCs and are utilized as targets for the development of new approaches in the diagnosis and treatment of CSCs. Moreover, several nanostructured particles, alone or in combination with current treatment approaches, have been used to improve the detection, imaging, and targeting of CSCs, thus addressing the limitations of cancer therapies. Targeting CSC surface markers, stemness-related signaling pathways, and tumor microenvironmental signals has improved the detection and eradication of CSCs and, therefore, tumor diagnosis and treatment. This review summarizes a variety of promising nanoparticles targeting the surface biomarkers of CSCs for the detection and eradication of tumor-initiating stem cells, used in combination with other treatment regimens.

Combination of Metal-Phenolic Network-Based Immunoactive Nanoparticles and Bipolar Irreversible Electroporation for Effective Cancer Immunotherapy

To circumvent the limitations of conventional cancer immunotherapy, it is critical to prime antigen-presenting cells (APCs) to initiate the cancer-immune cycle. Here, the authors develop a metal-phenolic network (MPN)-based immunoactive nanoparticle in combination with irreversible electroporation (IRE) for an effective cancer immunotherapy. The MPN nanoparticles are synthesized by coordinating tannic acid with manganese (Mn) ions, and subsequent coating with CpG-oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-ODNs) via hydrogen bonding. The CpG-ODN-coated Mn-phenolic network (CMP) nanoparticles are effectively internalized into macrophages, a type of APCs, and successfully trigger M1 polarization to promote release of proinflammatory cytokines. Notably, the CMP nanoparticles demonstrate an extended retention time period than the free CpG-ODN in the tumor. The tumor microenvironment tailored bipolar IRE, enhances the therapeutic efficacy by significantly broadening the ablation zone, which further increases immunogenic cell death (ICD). Ultimately, the simultaneous CMP nanoparticles and IRE treatment successfully inhibit tumor growth and prolong survival in a mouse tumor model. Thus, CMP nanoparticles are empowered with Mn and CpG-ODN immunomodulators and the tumor microenvironment tailored bipolar IRE will be a new tool for effective cancer immunotherapy to treat intractable malignancies.

Escherichia coli Mimetic Gold Nanorod-Mediated Photo- and Immunotherapy for Treating Cancer and Its Metastasis

Most cancer-related deaths are due to metastasis or recurrence. Therefore, the ultimate goal of cancer therapy will be to treat metastatic and recurrent cancers. Combination therapy for cancer will be one of trial for effective treating metastasis and recurrence. In this study, Escherichia coli-mimetic nanomaterials are synthesized using Escherichia coli membrane proteins, adhesion proteins, and gold nanorods, which are named E. coli mimetic AuNRs (ECA), for combination therapy against cancer and its recurrence. ECA treatment with 808 nm laser irradiation eliminates CT-26 or 4T1 tumors via a photothermal effect. ECA with laser irradiation induces activation of immune cells in the tumor-draining lymph nodes. The mice cured from CT-26 or 4T1 tumor by ECA are rechallenged with those cancer in the lung metastatic form, and the results showed that ECA treatment for the first CT-26 or 4T1 tumor challenge prevents cancer infiltration to the lung in the second challenge. This preventive effect of ECA against tumor growth in the second challenge is aided by cancer antigen-specific T cell immunity. Overall, these findings show that ECA is a nanomaterial with dual functions as a photothermal therapy for treating primary cancers and as immunotherapy for preventing recurrence and metastasis.

Computational Investigations on the Natural Small Molecule as an Inhibitor of Programmed Death Ligand 1 for Cancer Immunotherapy

Several therapeutic monoclonal antibodies approved by the FDA are available against the PD-1/PD-L1 (programmed death 1/programmed death ligand 1) immune checkpoint axis, which has been an unprecedented success in cancer treatment. However, existing therapeutics against PD-L1, including small molecule inhibitors, have certain drawbacks such as high cost and drug resistance that challenge the currently available anti-PD-L1 therapy. Therefore, this study presents the screening of 32,552 compounds from the Natural Product Atlas database against PD-L1, including three steps of structure-based virtual screening followed by binding free energy to refine the ideal conformation of potent PD-L1 inhibitors. Subsequently, five natural compounds, i.e., Neoenactin B1, Actinofuranone I, Cosmosporin, Ganocapenoid A, and 3-[3-hydroxy-4-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)phenyl]-5-(4-hydroxybenzyl)-4-methyldihydrofuran-2(3H)-one, were collected based on the ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity) profiling and binding free energy (>−60 kcal/mol) for further computational investigation in comparison to co-crystallized ligand, i.e., JQT inhibitor. Based on interaction mapping, explicit 100 ns molecular dynamics simulation, and end-point binding free energy calculations, the selected natural compounds were marked for substantial stability with PD-L1 via intermolecular interactions (hydrogen and hydrophobic) with essential residues in comparison to the JQT inhibitor. Collectively, the calculated results advocate the selected natural compounds as the putative potent inhibitors of PD-L1 and, therefore, can be considered for further development of PD-L1 immune checkpoint inhibitors in cancer immunotherapy.

Nanoparticles in Clinical Translation for Cancer Therapy

The advent of cancer therapeutics brought a paradigm shift from conventional therapy to precision medicine. The new therapeutic modalities accomplished through the properties of nanomaterials have extended their scope in cancer therapy beyond conventional drug delivery. Nanoparticles can be channeled in cancer therapy to encapsulate active pharmaceutical ingredients and deliver them to the tumor site in a more efficient manner. This review enumerates various types of nanoparticles that have entered clinical trials for cancer treatment. The obstacles in the journey of nanodrug from clinic to market are reviewed. Furthermore, the latest developments in using nanoparticles in cancer therapy are also highlighted.