Cytokine-induced monocyte MMP-1 is negatively regulated by GSK-3 through a p38 MAPK-mediated decrease in ERK1/2 MAPK activation

GSK-3α/β Activity Negatively Regulates MMP-1/9 Expression to Suppress Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection

Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection is the deadliest infectious disease and a global health problem. Macrophages (Mφs) and neutrophils that can phagocytose Mtb represent the first line of immune response to infection. Glycogen synthase kinase-3α/β (GSK-3α/β) represents a regulatory switch in host immune responses. However, the efficacy and molecular mechanisms of how GSK-3α/β interacts with Mtb infection in Mφs remain undefined. Here, we demonstrated that Mtb infection downregulated GSK-3α/β activity and promoted matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) and MMP-9 expressions in Mφs derived from acute monocytic human leukemia THP-1 cells (THP-1-Mφs). We confirmed the upregulation of MMP-9 expression in tissues of TB patients compared with patients of chronic inflammation (CI). In THP-1-Mφs and C57BL/6 mice, GSK-3α/β inhibitor SB216763 significantly increased MMP-1/9 production and facilitated Mtb load, while MMP inhibitors blocked MMP-1/9 expression and Mtb infection. Consistently, GSK-3α/β silencing significantly increased MMP-1/9 expression and Mtb infection, while overexpression of GSK-3α/β and constitutive activated GSK-3α/β mutants significantly reduced MMP-1/9 expression and Mtb infection in THP-1-Mφs. MMP-1/9 silencing reduced Mtb infection, while overexpression of MMP-1/9 promoted Mtb infection in THP-1-Mφs. We further found that GSK-3α/β inhibition increased Mtb infection and MMP-1/9 expression was blocked by ERK1/2 inhibitor. Additionally, we showed that protein kinase C-δ (PKC-δ) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) reduced GSK-3α/β activity and promoted MMP-1/9 production in Mtb-infected THP-1-Mφs. In conclusion, this study suggests that PKC-δ-mTOR axis suppresses GSK-3α/β activation with acceleration of MMP-1/9 expression through phospho-ERK1/2. These results reveal a novel immune escape mechanism of Mtb and a novel crosstalk between these critical signaling pathways in anti-TB immunity.

GSK-3Beta-Dependent Activation of GEF-H1/ROCK Signaling Promotes LPS-Induced Lung Vascular Endothelial Barrier Dysfunction and Acute Lung Injury

The bacterial endotoxin or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) leads to the extensive vascular endothelial cells (EC) injury under septic conditions. Guanine nucleotide exchange factor-H1 (GEF-H1)/ROCK signaling not only involved in LPS-induced overexpression of pro-inflammatory mediator in ECs but also implicated in LPS-induced endothelial hyper-permeability. However, the mechanisms behind LPS-induced GEF-H1/ROCK signaling activation in the progress of EC injury remain incompletely understood. GEF-H1 localized on microtubules (MT) and is suppressed in its MT-bound state. MT disassembly promotes GEF-H1 release from MT and stimulates downstream ROCK-specific GEF activity. Since glycogen synthase kinase (GSK-3beta) participates in regulating MT dynamics under pathologic conditions, we examined the pivotal roles for GSK-3beta in modulating LPS-induced activation of GEF-H1/ROCK, increase of vascular endothelial permeability and severity of acute lung injury (ALI). In this study, we found that LPS induced human pulmonary endothelial cell (HPMEC) monolayers disruption accompanied by increase in GSK-3beta activity, activation of GEF-H1/ROCK signaling and decrease in beta-catenin and ZO-1 expression. Inhibition of GSK-3beta reduced HPMEC monolayers hyper-permeability and GEF-H1/ROCK activity in response to LPS. GSK-3beta/GEF-H1/ROCK signaling is implicated in regulating the expression of beta-catenin and ZO-1. In vivo, GSK-3beta inhibition attenuated LPS-induced activation of GEF-H1/ROCK pathway, lung edema and subsequent ALI. These findings present a new mechanism of GSK-3beta-dependent exacerbation of lung micro-vascular hyper-permeability and escalation of ALI via activation of GEF-H1/ROCK signaling and disruption of intracellular junctional proteins under septic condition.

Metalloproteinase production from macrophages - a perfect storm leading to atherosclerotic plaque rupture and myocardial infarction

What is the topic of this review? The review discusses how in atherosclerotic plaques, a combination of inflammatory mediators together with loss of anti inflammatory factors is most likely to be responsible for the excess of MMP over TIMP expression that causes plaque rupture and myocardial infarction. What advances does it highlight? Regulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of MMP (TIMPs) is divergent between human and mouse macrophages. There is prostaglandin E₂ -dependent and -independent regulation. Inflammatory cytokines act through distinct (albeit overlapping) signalling pathways to elicit different patterns of MMP and TIMP expression. Transcriptional and epigenetic regulation occurs. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) produced from macrophages contribute to plaque rupture, atherothrombosis and myocardial infarction. New treatments could emerge from defining the mediators and underlying mechanisms. In human monocytes, prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂ ) stimulates MMP production, and inflammatory mediators such as tumour necrosis factor α, interleukin-1 and Toll-like receptor ligands can act either through or independently of PGE₂ . Differentiation of human monocytes to non-foamy macrophages increases constitutive expression of MMP-7, -8, -9, -14 and -19 and tissue inhibitor of MMP (TIMP)-1 to -3 through unknown, PGE₂ -independent mechanisms. Human macrophages express more MMP-1, -7 and -9 and TIMP-3 and less MMP-12 and -13 than mouse macrophages. Inflammatory mediators working through activator protein-1 and nuclear factor-κB transcription factor pathways upregulate MMP-1, -3, -10, -12 and -14 in human macrophages (MMP-9, -12 and -13 in mice), and studies with plaque tissue sections and isolated foam cells confirm this conclusion in vivo. Classical activation with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor upregulates MMP-12, whereas interferon-γ upregulates MMP-12, -14 and -25 and downregulates TIMP-3 in human but not mouse macrophages. Alternative activation with interleukin-4 markedly stimulates the expression of only MMP-12 in humans and MMP-19 in mice. The anti-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-β decrease production of several MMPs. Epigenetic upregulation of MMP-14 during foam cell formation or by granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor occurs by decreasing miRNA-24. A 'perfect storm' caused by a combination of these mechanisms is most likely to promote MMP-mediated macrophage invasion, tissue destruction and atherosclerotic plaque rupture.

Adh enhances Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae pathogenicity by binding to OR5M11 and activating p38 which induces apoptosis of PAMs and IL-8 release

Members of the Trimeric Autotransporter Adhesin (TAA) family play a crucial role in the adhesion of Gram-negative pathogens to host cells, but the immunopathogenesis of TAAs remains unknown. Our previous studies demonstrated that Adh from Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (A. pleuropneumoniae) is required for full bacterial pathogenicity. Alveolar macrophages are the first line of defense against respiratory infections. This study compared the interactions between porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs) and wild-type A. pleuropneumoniae (5b WT) or an Adh-deletion strain (5b ΔAdh) via gene microarray, immunoprecipitation and other technologies. We found that Adh was shown to interact with the PAMs membrane protein OR5M11, an olfactory receptor, resulting in the high-level secretion of IL-8 by activation of p38 MAPK signaling pathway. Subsequently, PAMs apoptosis via the activation of the Fax and Bax signaling pathways was observed, followed by activation of caspases 8, 9, and 3. The immunological pathogenic roles of Adh were also confirmed in both murine and piglets infectious models in vivo. These results identify a novel immunological strategy for TAAs to boost the pathogenicity of A. pleuropneumoniae. Together, these datas reveal the high versatility of the Adh protein as a virulence factor and provide novel insight into the immunological pathogenic role of TAAs.