The Many Facets of Sphingolipids in the Specific Phases of Acute Inflammatory Response

This review provides an overview on components of the sphingolipid superfamily, on their localization and metabolism. Information about the sphingolipid biological activity in cell physiopathology is given. Recent studies highlight the role of sphingolipids in inflammatory process. We summarize the emerging data that support the different roles of the sphingolipid members in specific phases of inflammation: (1) migration of immune cells, (2) recognition of exogenous agents, and (3) activation/differentiation of immune cells.

Transient Receptor Potential Melastatin 2 Regulates Phagosome Maturation and Is Required for Bacterial Clearance in Escherichia coli Sepsis

BACKGROUND

Transient receptor potential melastatin 2 is a Ca-permeable cation channel abundantly expressed in macrophages. Trpm2 mice showed exacerbated infection and mortality during polymicrobial sepsis, which is associated with inefficient bacterial killing in macrophages. However, the mechanism of transient receptor potential melastatin 2 regulating bacterial killing remains unknown.

METHODS

Trpm2 mice were intraperitoneally injected with Escherichia coli. The survival rate (n = 21) and bacterial burden (n = 5) were assessed. The processes of phagosome maturation and phagosome-lysosome fusion in peritoneal macrophages were extensively studied. The impact of increasing intracellular Ca concentration on bacterial clearance in macrophages (n = 3) and on survival rate of Trpm2 mice infected with E. coli (n = 21) was investigated.

RESULTS

Trpm2 mice exhibited increased mortality (85% vs. 54%; P < 0.01) and aggravated bacterial burden during E. coli sepsis. Trpm2 peritoneal macrophages infected with E. coli showed dampened recruitment of lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 and impaired phagosome maturation evidenced by a decrease in the accumulation of early endosome antigen 1, whereas a normal acquisition of Ras-related protein in brain 5. Increasing the cytosolic Ca concentration in Trpm2 peritoneal macrophages via ionomycin treatment facilitated early endosome antigen 1 recruitment to Ras-related protein in brain 5 and phagosomal localization of lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 and consequently enhanced bactericidal activity. Adoptive transfer of ionomycin-treated Trpm2 peritoneal macrophages improved bacterial clearance and survival (67% vs. 29%; P < 0.01) in Trpm2 mice challenged with E. coli.

CONCLUSIONS

Transient receptor potential melastatin 2 plays a critical role in host defense against invading bacteria via promoting phagosome maturation through facilitation of early endosome antigen 1 recruitment.

Integration of transient receptor potential canonical channels with lipids

Transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels are the canonical (C) subset of the TRP proteins, which are widely expressed in mammalian cells. They are thought to be primarily involved in determining calcium and sodium entry and have wide-ranging functions that include regulation of cell proliferation, motility and contraction. The channels are modulated by a multiplicity of factors, putatively existing as integrators in the plasma membrane. This review considers the sensitivities of TRPC channels to lipids that include diacylglycerols, phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate, lysophospholipids, oxidized phospholipids, arachidonic acid and its metabolites, sphingosine-1-phosphate, cholesterol and some steroidal derivatives and other lipid factors such as gangliosides. Promiscuous and selective lipid sensing have been detected. There appear to be close working relationships with lipids of the phospholipase C and A₂ enzyme systems, which may enable integration with receptor signalling and membrane stretch. There are differences in the properties of each TRPC channel that are further complicated by TRPC heteromultimerization. The lipids modulate activity of the channels or insertion in the plasma membrane. Lipid microenvironments and intermediate sensing proteins have been described that include caveolae, G protein signalling, SEC14-like and spectrin-type domains 1 (SESTD1) and podocin. The data suggest that lipid sensing is an important aspect of TRPC channel biology enabling integration with other signalling systems.

Ceramide kinase: the first decade

It has been some 20 years since the initial discovery of ceramide 1-phosphate (C1P) and nearly a decade since ceramide kinase (CERK) was cloned. Many studies have shown that C1P is important for membrane biology and for the regulation of membrane-bound proteins, and the CERK enzyme has appeared to be tightly regulated in order to control both ceramide levels and production of C1P. Furthermore, C1P made by CERK has emerged as a genuine signalling entity. However, it represents only part of the C1P pool that is available in the cell, therefore suggesting that alternative unknown C1P-producing mechanisms may also play a role. Recent technological developments for measuring complex sphingolipids in biological samples, together with the availability of Cerk-deficient animals as well as potent CERK inhibitors, have now provided new grounds for investigating C1P biology further. Here, we will review the current understanding of CERK and C1P in terms of biochemistry and functional implications, with particular attention to C1P produced by CERK.

The role of calcium signaling in phagocytosis

Immune cells kill microbes by engulfing them in a membrane-enclosed compartment, the phagosome. Phagocytosis is initiated when foreign particles bind to receptors on the membrane of phagocytes. The best-studied phagocytic receptors, those for Igs (FcgammaR) and for complement proteins (CR), activate PLC and PLD, resulting in the intracellular production of the Ca(2+)-mobilizing second messengers InsP3 and S1P, respectively. The ensuing release of Ca(2+) from the ER activates SOCE channels in the plasma and/or phagosomal membrane, leading to sustained or oscillatory elevations in cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration. Cytosolic Ca(2+) elevations are required for efficient ingestion of foreign particles by some, but not all, phagocytic receptors and stringently control the subsequent steps involved in the maturation of phagosomes. Ca(2+) is required for the solubilization of the actin meshwork that surrounds nascent phagosomes, for the fusion of phagosomes with granules containing lytic enzymes, and for the assembly and activation of the superoxide-generating NADPH oxidase complex. Furthermore, Ca(2+) entry only occurs at physiological voltages and therefore, requires the activity of proton channels that counteract the depolarizing action of the phagocytic oxidase. The molecules that mediate Ca(2+) ion flux across the phagosomal membrane are still unknown but likely include the ubiquitous SOCE channels and possibly other types of Ca(2+) channels such as LGCC and VGCC. Understanding the molecular basis of the Ca(2+) signals that control phagocytosis might provide new, therapeutic tools against pathogens that subvert phagocytic killing.

Ceramide-1-phosphate in phagocytosis and calcium homeostasis

Sphingolipids are well established sources of important signaling molecules. For example, ceramide (Cer) has been described as a potent inhibitor of cell growth and inducer of apoptosis. In contrast, ceramide-1-phosphate (C1P) has been reported to have mitogenic properties and to inhibit apoptosis. Our understanding of the distinct biological roles of C1P in the regulation of DNA synthesis, inflammation, membrane fusion and intracellular Ca2+ increase has rapidly expanded. C1P is a bioactive sphingolipid formed by the phosphorylation of ceramide catalyzed by ceramide kinase (CERK). This chapter specifically focuses on the role of C1P in phagocytosis and Ca2+ homeostasis. Studies of the metabolism of C1P during phagocytosis, may lead to a better understanding of its role in signaling. Potentially, the inhibition of CERK and C1P formation may be a therapeutic target for inflammation.

Calicum microdomains form within neutrophils at the neutrophil-tumor cell synapse: role in antibody-dependent target cell apoptosis

Ca(2+) messages are broadly important in cellular signal transduction. In immune cells, Ca(2+) signaling is an essential step in many forms of activation. Neutrophil-mediated antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) is one form of leukocyte activation that plays an important role in tumor cell killing in vitro and in patient care. Using fluorescence methodologies, we found that neutrophils exhibit Ca(2+) signals during ADCC directed against breast fibrosarcoma cells. Importantly, these signals were localized to Ca(2+) microdomains at the neutrophil-to-tumor cell interface where they display dynamic features such as movement, fusion, and fission. These signals were blocked by the intracellular Ca(2+) buffer BAPTA. At the neutrophil-tumor cell synapse, the neutrophil's cytoplasm was enriched in STIM1, a crucial mediator of Ca(2+) signaling, whereas the Ca(2+)-binding proteins calbindin and parvalbumin were not affected. Our findings suggest that Ca(2+) microdomains are due to an active signaling process. As Ca(2+) signals within neutrophils were necessary for specific tumor cell apoptosis, a central role of microdomains in leukocyte-mediated tumor cell destruction is indicated.

TRPC channel lipid specificity and mechanisms of lipid regulation

TRPC channels are a subset of the transient receptor potential (TRP) proteins widely expressed in mammalian cells. They are thought to be primarily involved in determining calcium or sodium entry and have broad-ranging functions that include regulation of cell proliferation, motility and contraction. The channels do not respond to a single stimulator but rather are activated or modulated by a multiplicity of factors, potentially existing as integrators at the plasma membrane. This review considers the sensitivity of TRPCs to lipid factors, with focus on sensitivities to diacylglycerols, lysophospholipids, arachidonic acid and its metabolites, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), cholesterol and derivatives, and other lipid factors such as gangliosides. Promiscuous and selective lipid-sensing are apparent. In many cases the lipids stimulate channel function or increase insertion of channels in the membrane. Both direct and indirect (receptor-dependent) lipid effects are evident. Although information is limited, the lipid profiles are consistent with TRPCs having close working relationships with phospholipase C and A2 enzymes. We need much more information about lipid-sensing by TRPCs if we are to fully appreciate its significance, but the available data suggest that lipid-sensing is a key, but not exclusive, aspect of TRPC biology.