Prospective comparative study of integrated positron emission tomography-computed tomography scan compared with remediastinoscopy in the assessment of residual mediastinal lymph node disease after induction chemotherapy for mediastinoscopy-proven stage IIIA-N2 Non-small-cell lung cancer: a Leuven Lung Cancer Group Study

Multidisciplinary approach for locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC): 2023 expert consensus of the Spanish Lung Cancer Group GECP

INTRODUCTION

Recent advances in the treatment of locally advanced NSCLC have led to changes in the standard of care for this disease. For the selection of the best approach strategy for each patient, it is necessary the homogenization of diagnostic and therapeutic interventions, as well as the promotion of the evaluation of patients by a multidisciplinary oncology team.

OBJECTIVE

Development of an expert consensus document with suggestions for the approach and treatment of locally advanced NSCLC leaded by Spanish Lung Cancer Group GECP.

METHODS

Between March and July 2023, a panel of 28 experts was formed. Using a mixed technique (Delphi/nominal group) under the guidance of a coordinating group, consensus was reached in 4 phases: 1. Literature review and definition of discussion topics 2. First round of voting 3. Communicating the results and second round of voting 4. Definition of conclusions in nominal group meeting. Responses were consolidated using medians and interquartile ranges. The threshold for agreement was defined as 85% of the votes.

RESULTS

New and controversial situations regarding the diagnosis and management of locally advanced NSCLC were analyzed and reconciled based on evidence and clinical experience. Discussion issues included: molecular diagnosis and biomarkers, radiologic and surgical diagnosis, mediastinal staging, role of the multidisciplinary thoracic committee, neoadjuvant treatment indications, evaluation of response to neoadjuvant treatment, postoperative evaluation, and follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Consensus clinical suggestions were generated on the most relevant scenarios such as diagnosis, staging and treatment of locally advanced lung cancer, which will serve to support decision-making in daily practice.

Canadian Consensus Recommendations for the Management of Operable Stage II/III Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer: Results of a Modified Delphi Process

The treatment paradigm for patients with stage II/III non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is rapidly evolving. We performed a modified Delphi process culminating at the Early-stage Lung cancer International eXpert Retreat (ELIXR23) meeting held in Montreal, Canada, in June 2023. Participants included medical and radiation oncologists, thoracic surgeons and pathologists from across Quebec. Statements relating to diagnosis and treatment paradigms in the preoperative, operative and postoperative time periods were generated and modified until all held a high level of consensus. These statements are aimed to help guide clinicians involved in the treatment of patients with stage II/III NSCLC.

Clinical utility of [18F]FDG PET/CT in the assessment of mediastinal lymph node disease after neoadjuvant chemoimmunotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer

OBJECTIVES

The performance of positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) for the prediction of ypN2 disease in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) after neoadjuvant chemoimmunotherapy has not been reported. This multicenter study investigated the utility of PET/CT to assess ypN2 disease in these patients.

METHODS

A total of 181 consecutive patients (chemoimmunotherapy = 86, chemotherapy = 95) at four institutions were enrolled in this study. Every patient received a PET/CT scan prior to surgery and complete resection with systematic nodal dissection. The diagnostic performance was evaluated through area under the curve (AUC). Kaplan-Meier method and Cox analysis were performed to identify the risk factors affecting recurrences.

RESULTS

The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of PET/CT for ypN2 diseases were 0.667, 0.835, and 0.779, respectively. Therefore, the AUC was 0.751. Compared with the false positive cases, the mean value of max standardized uptake value (SUVmax) (6.024 vs. 2.672, p < 0.001) of N2 nodes was significantly higher in true positive patients. Moreover, the SUVmax of true positive (7.671 vs. 5.976, p = 0.365) and false (2.433 vs. 2.339, p = 0.990) positive cases were similar between chemoimmunotherapy and chemotherapy, respectively. Survival analysis proved that pathologic N (ypN) 2 patients could be stratified by PET/CT-N2(+ vs. -) for both chemoimmunotherapy (p = 0.023) and chemotherapy (p = 0.010).

CONCLUSIONS

PET/CT is an accurate and non-invasive test for mediastinal restaging of NSCLC patients who receive neoadjuvant chemoimmunotherapy. The ypN2 patients with PET/CT-N2( +) are identified as an independent prognostic factor compared with PET/CT-N2(-).

CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT

Imaging with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) plays an integral role during disease diagnosis, staging, and therapeutic response assessments in patients with NSCLC. PET/CT could be an effective non-invasive tool for predicting ypN2 diseases after neoadjuvant chemoimmunotherapy.

KEY POINTS

• PET/CT could serve as an effective non-invasive tool for predicting ypN2 diseases. • The ypN2 patients with PET/CT-N2( +) were a strong and independent prognostic factor. • The application of PET/CT for restaging should be encouraged in clinical practice.

What is the yield of EBUS-TBNA for re-evaluation of previously treated non-small-cell lung cancer?

BACKGROUND

Locoregional recurrence in lung cancer still remains an important problem. We aimed to indicate the effectiveness of endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration (EBUS-TBNA) for reevaluation in previously treated nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

METHODS

: NSCLC patients who underwent EBUS for rebiopsy of suspicious recurrent or progressive lesions between January 2010 and June 2017 were reviewed. Patients were categorized into two groups based on the previous treatment modalities: Group 1 (G1) consisted of patients who had been treated with chemoradiotherapy, and Group 2 (G2) consisted of patients who had undergone radical surgery.

RESULTS

Of 115 patients, 100 patients enrolled in the study. Of 26 patients with 35 lymph nodes in G1, malignant cells were identified in thirteen patients (50%). Anthracosis was detected in the remaining. Malignancy was detected in 28 patients (37.8%) in G2. Thirty-threepatients were diagnosed as benign (24 anthracosis; 8 lymphocytes, and 1 granulomatous); 8 were not sampled, and inadequate material was obtained in five. The sensitivity, specificity, negative and positive predictive value, and overall diagnostic accuracy of EBUS-TBNA for rebiopsy in G1 were 84.8%, 100%, 89.1%, 100%, and 93.2%, respectively. These values were all perfect in G2.

DISCUSSION

EBUS-TBNA could be preferred as a feasible and efficient procedure for rebiopsy in previously treated NSCLC patients.

Comparative evaluation of staging algorithms proven N2 non-small cell lung cancer treated by lung resection after neoadjuvant therapy

Background

In this study, we aimed to compare the performances of clinical methods, minimally invasive methods, mediastinoscopy, and re-mediastinoscopy used in the restaging of patients receiving neoadjuvant therapy for pathologically proven N2. Our secondary objective was to determine the most optimal algorithm for initial staging and restaging after neoadjuvant therapy.

Methods

Between April 2003 and August 2017, a total of 105 patients (99 males, 6 females; mean age: 54.5±8.2 years; range, 27 to 73 years) who were diagnosed with pathologically proven Stage 3A-B N2 non-small cell lung cancer and received neoadjuvant therapy and subsequently lung resection were retrospectively analyzed. Staging algorithm groups (Group 1=first mediastinoscopy-second clinic, Group 2=first mediastinoscopy-second minimally invasive, Group 3=first mediastinoscopy-second re-mediastinoscopy, and Group 4=first minimally invasive-second mediastinoscopy) were created and compared.

Results

In the first stage, N2 diagnosis was made in 90 patients by mediastinoscopy and in 15 patients by minimally invasive method. In the second stage, 44 patients were restaged by the clinical method, 23 by the minimally invasive method, 23 by re-mediastinoscopy, and 15 by mediastinoscopy. The false negativity rates of Groups 1, 2, 3, and 4 were 27.2%, 26.1%, 21.8%, and 13.3%, respectively. The most reliable staging algorithm was found to be the minimally invasive method in the first step and mediastinoscopy in the second step. The mean overall five-year survival rate was 46.3±4.4%, and downstaging in lymph node involvement was found to have a favorable effect on survival (54.3% vs. 21.8%, respectively; p=0.003).

Conclusion

The staging method to be chosen before and after neoadjuvant therapy is critical in the treatment of Stage 3A-B N2 non-small cell lung cancer. In re-mediastinoscopy, the rate of false negativity increases due to technical difficulties and insufficient sampling. As the most optimal staging algorithm, the minimally invasive method is recommended in the first step and mediastinoscopy in the second step.

[Mediastinal Staging]

Thorough mediastinal staging is pivotal for prognostic assessment and treatment planning in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) without distant metastasis. It aims to answer the question of whether a technically and functionally feasible operation also makes sense from an oncological point of view. In case of a nodal-free mediastinum, primary surgical therapy can be considered. If the ipsilateral mediastinal lymph nodes are affected, multimodal therapy should be sought. Operating is usually no longer the first step, especially with extensive lymph node infestation. Surgery is recommended, if neoadjuvant (radio-)chemotherapy has achieved downstaging or major response. If the contralateral mediastinal lymph nodes are involved, curative surgery is no longer part of the therapeutic concept. The therapy of choice in this situation is definitive chemo-radiotherapy.Guidelines for mediastinal staging consistently require to combine radiological, nuclear medicine and minimally invasive methods. Imaging with CT and PET allows an initial assessment of the mediastinal status. In most cases it has to be complemented with tissue confirmation. Echoendoscopic assessment of the mediastinum with needle biopsy is the minimally invasive method of first choice ("needle first"). Surgical staging methods are reserved for situations, that cannot be satisfactorily clarified by echoendoscopy.Technique and outcome of the different methods are described and algorithms are presented for different oncological situations.

Mediastinales Staging

Thorough mediastinal staging is pivotal for prognostic assessment and treatment planning in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) without distant metastasis. It aims to answer the question of whether a technically and functionally feasible operation also makes sense from an oncological point of view. In case of a nodal-free mediastinum, primary surgical therapy can be considered. If the ipsilateral mediastinal lymph nodes are affected, multimodal therapy should be sought. Operating is usually no longer the first step, especially with extensive lymph node infestation. Surgery is recommended, if neoadjuvant (radio-)chemotherapy has achieved downstaging or major response. If the contralateral mediastinal lymph nodes are involved, curative surgery is no longer part of the therapeutic concept. The therapy of choice in this situation is definitive chemo-radiotherapy.Guidelines for mediastinal staging consistently require to combine radiological, nuclear medicine and minimally invasive methods. Imaging with CT and PET allows an initial assessment of the mediastinal status. In most cases it has to be complemented with tissue confirmation. Echoendoscopic assessment of the mediastinum with needle biopsy is the minimally invasive method of first choice ("needle first"). Surgical staging methods are reserved for situations, that cannot be satisfactorily clarified by echoendoscopy.Technique and outcome of the different methods are described and algorithms are presented for different oncological situations.

Mediastinal staging for non-small cell lung cancer

The staging of mediastinal lymph nodes for lung cancer is crucial for planning treatments or reinterventions. In potentially curable patients the aim of mediastinal staging is to exclude the presence of malignancy in mediastinal lymph nodes with a high level of accuracy while also considering clinical factors and the balance of the benefits and risks of tissue sampling techniques. Mediastinal staging is based on computed tomography (CT) and positron emission tomography (PET) and can be sufficient when no mediastinal abnormalities are present and the probability of unforeseen N2 disease is low. In the case of bulky lymph nodes with a high probability of malignancy in PET-CT, tissue confirmation is not normally required. If mediastinal sampling is needed it can be achieved by endosonographic techniques, including endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration (EBUS-TBNA) and endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration (EUS-FNA) or a combination of the two. Positive results do not need further confirmation. In the case of negative results, surgical techniques still play a role in the selected cases discussed by multidisciplinary lung cancer committees. New mediastinal surgical techniques including video-assisted cervical mediastinoscopy (VACM), video-assisted mediastinoscopic lymphadenectomy (VAMLA), and transcervical extended mediastinal lymphadenectomy (TEMLA) have been shown to be useful in selected patients. Final pathological staging is based on lymph node removal during surgery and can be achieved by taking one of two approaches: lymph node sampling or systematic lymph node sampling. The accuracy of PET-CT and mediastinal endosonography is lower for mediastinal restaging than it is for surgical techniques; their false positive and false negative (FN) rate is high and so, they require histological confirmation. Here we explain and revise the results from the most recent studies and current international guidelines.

18F-FDG PET/CT in Restaging and Evaluation of Response to Therapy in Lung Cancer: State of the Art

BACKGROUND

Metabolic information provided by 18F-FDG PET/CT are useful for initial staging, therapy planning, response evaluation, and to a lesser extent for the follow-up of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). To date, there are no established clinical guidelines in treatment response and early detection of recurrence.

OBJECTIVE

To provide an overview of 18F-FDG PET/CT in NSCLC and in particular, to discuss its utility in treatment response evaluation and restaging of lung cancer.

METHODS

A comprehensive search was used based on PubMed results. From all studies published in English those that explored the role of 18F-FDG PET/CT in the treatment response scenario were selected.

RESULTS

Several studies have demonstrated that modifications in metabolic activity, expressed by changes in SUV both in the primary tumor as well as in regional lymph nodes, are associated with tumor response and survival. Beside SUV, other metabolic parameters (i.e. MTV, TLG, and percentage changes) are emerging to be helpful for predicting clinical outcomes.

CONCLUSION

18F-FDG parameters appear to be promising factors for evaluating treatment response and for detecting recurrences, although larger prospective trials are needed to confirm these evidences and to determine optimal cut-off values.

Mediastinal staging: when and how?

Mediastinal staging for lung cancer includes both the assessment of mediastinal lymph nodes status before treatment and the postoperative pathological staging obtained by lymph-node removal performed during surgery. In patients with early stage NSCLC, the aim is to exclude with the highest certainty and the lowest morbidity the presence of mediastinal node involvement. Before treatment, mediastinal staging is based on imaging techniques, endoscopic techniques, and surgical procedures. Final pathological staging is based on lymph-node removal performed with lung resection according with different modalities (sampling, systematic dissection, etc.) and various approaches (thoracotomy, VATS, robotic). Data and indications from literature evidences are reported and discussed.

Endosonography with lymph node sampling for restaging the mediastinum in lung cancer: A systematic review and pooled data analysis

BACKGROUND

Mediastinal restaging after induction treatment is still a difficult and controversial issue. We aimed to investigate the diagnostic accuracy of endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration and endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration for restaging the mediastinum after induction treatment in patients with lung cancer.

METHODS

Embase and PubMed databases were searched from conception to March 2019. Data from relevant studies were analyzed to assess sensitivity and specificity of endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration and endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration, and to fit the hierarchical summary receiver operating characteristic curves.

RESULTS

A total of 10 studies consisting of 558 patients fulfilled the inclusion criteria. All patients were restaged by endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration, endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration, or both. Negative results were confirmed by subsequent surgical approaches. There were no complications reported during any endosonography approaches reviewed. The pooled sensitivities of endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration and endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration were 65% (95% confidence interval [CI], 52-76) and 73% (95% CI, 52-87), respectively, and specificities were 99% (95% CI, 78-100) and 99% (95% CI, 90-100), respectively. The area under the hierarchical summary receiver operating characteristic curves were 0.85 (95% CI, 0.81-0.88) for endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration and 0.99 (95% CI, 0.98-1) for endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration. Moreover, for patients who received chemotherapy alone, the pooled sensitivity of endosonography with lymph node sampling for restaging was 66% (95% CI, 56-75), and specificity was 100% (95% CI, 34-100); for patients who received chemoradiotherapy, the results seemed similar with a sensitivity of 77% (95% CI, 47-92) and specificity of 99% (95% CI, 48-100).

CONCLUSIONS

Endosonography with lymph node sampling is an accurate and safe technique for mediastinal restaging of lung cancer.

Staging of Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Staging of lung cancer serves 2 purposes; it attempts to classify patients into groups where particular treatments are appropriate and defines those groups based on expected prognosis. The eighth edition of the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer staging system deals with the issues raised by screening with fine cut computed tomography. Each phase of staging is a legitimate dataset on its own. Molecular profiling of lung cancer has led to the development of an increasing number of novel agents to treat systemic disease. Prognosis is increasingly determined by genetic susceptibility of the specific cancer.

Comparison of mediastinal lymph node status and relapse pattern in clinical stage IIIA non-small cell lung cancer patients treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy versus upfront surgery: A single center experience

Background

In spite of the progress made in neoadjuvant therapy for operable non small‐cell lung cancer (NSCLC), many issues remain unsolved, especially in locally advanced stage IIIA.

Methods

Retrospective data of 163 patients diagnosed with stage IIIA NSCLC after surgery was analyzed. The patients were divided into two groups: a preoperative chemotherapy group including 59 patients who received platinum‐etoposide doublet treatment before surgery, and an upfront surgery group including 104 patients for whom surgical resection was the first treatment step. Adjuvant chemotherapy or/and radiotherapy was administered to 139 patients (85.3%), while 24 patients (14.7%) were followed‐up only.

Results

The rate of N2 disease was significantly higher in the upfront surgery group (P < 0.001). The one‐year relapse rate was 49.5% in the preoperative chemotherapy group compared to 65.4% in the upfront surgery group. There was a significant difference in relapse rate in relation to adjuvant chemotheraphy treatment (P = 0.007). The probability of relapse was equal whether radiotherapy was applied or not (P = 0.142). There was no statistically significant difference in two‐year mortality (P = 0.577). The median survival duration after two years of follow‐up was 19.6 months in the preoperative chemotherapy group versus 18.8 months in the upfront surgery group (P = 0.608 > 0.05).

Conclusion

There was significant difference in preoperative chemotherapy group regarding relapse rate and treatment outcomes related to the lymph node status comparing to the upfront surgery group. Neoadjuvant/adjuvant chemo‐therapy is a part of treatment for patients with stage IIIA NSCLC, but further investigation is required to determine optimal treatment.

The role of endobronchial ultrasound versus mediastinoscopy for non-small cell lung cancer

This review provides an update on the current role of endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration (EBUS-TBNA) and mediastinoscopy (Med) in assessment of patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Invasive mediastinal lymph node (LN) staging is the major application for both of these techniques. Up until recently, Med was the gold standard for invasive mediastinal LN staging in NSCLC. However, EBUS-TBNA has shown to be equivalent, and in some studies better than Med for invasive staging of lung cancer. EBUS-TBNA offers access to N1 LNs and development of the thin convex probe EBUS (TCP-EBUS) will expand EBUS-TBNA access from the paratracheal region and central airways to more distal parabronchial regions allowing for more extensive N1 LN assessment and sampling more distal lung tumors. EBUS-TBNA is more cost-effective than Med and it is currently recommended as the test of first choice for invasive mediastinal LN staging in lung cancer. Confirmatory Med should be performed selectively in patients with high pretest probability of metastatic disease. Addition of esophageal ultrasound fine needle aspiration (EUS-FNA) may increase diagnostic yield of EBUS-TBNA mediastinal staging. Both Med and EBUS-TBNA can be used in primary lung cancer diagnosis, restaging of the mediastinum following neoadjuvant therapy and in diagnosis of lung cancer recurrence. In the future, a combination of EBUS-TBNA with or without EUS-FNA and Med is most likely going to provide the most optimal invasive assessment of the mediastinum in patients with lung cancer. The decision on test choice and sequence should be made on a case-by-case basis and factoring in local resources and expertise.

The Value of FDG PET/CT in Treatment Response Assessment, Follow-Up, and Surveillance of Lung Cancer

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this article is to summarize the evidence regarding the role of FDG PET/CT in treatment response assessment and surveillance of lung cancer and to provide suggested best practices.

CONCLUSION

FDG PET/CT is a valuable imaging tool for assessing treatment response for patients with lung cancer, though evidence for its comparative effectiveness with chest CT is still evolving. FDG PET/CT is most useful when there is clinical suspicion or other evidence for disease recurrence or metastases. The sequencing, cost analysis, and comparative effectiveness of FDG PET/CT and conventional imaging modalities in the follow-up setting need to be investigated.

Is endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration an effective diagnostic procedure in restaging of non-small cell lung cancer patients?

Background and Objectives:

Selecting the diagnostic procedure for mediastinal restaging after chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy in Stage IIIA-N2 non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients remains a problem. The aim of the study was to determine the efficacy of endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration (EBUS-TBNA) for the evaluation of mediastinal lymph nodes in the restaging of NSCLC patients.

Materials and Methods:

The present multicentric study retrospectively analyzed the results of Stage IIIA-N2 NSCLC patients who had undergone EBUS for mediastinal restaging after preoperative chemotherapy or radiotherapy or both.

Results:

In 44 patients with 73 N2 nodes, malignant cells were identified in EBUS-TBNA from 23 patients (57.5%) and 25 lymph nodes (34.2%). Twenty-one patients (42.5%) and 48 lymph nodes (65.8%) were negative for nodal metastasis. All of these patients with negative results subsequently underwent mediastinoscopy or surgery (n = 9 and n = 12, respectively). Metastasis was detected in 5 (23.8%) of 21 patients and 6 (12.5%) of 48 lymph nodes. The diagnostic sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predicted value and accuracy of EBUS-TBNA based on number of patients were 82.1%, 100%, 100%, 76.2%, and 88.6%, respectively.

Conclusions:

EBUS-TBNA should be done before invasive procedures in restaging of the mediastinum in patients previously treated with neoadjuvant therapy because of high diagnostic accuracy rate. However, negative results should be confirmed with invasive procedures such as mediastinoscopy and thoracoscopy.

Evaluation of lung tumor response to therapy: Current and emerging techniques

Lung tumor response to therapy may be evaluated in most instances by morphological criteria such as RECIST 1.1 on computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). However, those criteria are limited because they are based on tumoral dimensional changes and do not take into account other morphologic criteria such as density evaluation, functional or metabolic changes that may occur following conventional or targeted chemotherapy. New techniques such as dual-energy CT, PET-CT, MRI including diffusion-weighted MRI has to be considered into the new technical armamentarium for tumor response evaluation. Integration of all informations provided by the different imaging modalities has to be integrated and represents probably the future goal of tumor response evaluation. The aim of the present paper is to review the current and emerging imaging criteria used to evaluate the response of therapy in the field of lung cancer.

Optimum treatment for mediastinal lymph node positive (N2) resectable non-small cell lung cancer: what is the role for surgery?

INTRODUCTION

A third of patients with Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) present with Stage III disease with mediastinal (N2) nodal involvement representing an extremely heterogeneous population with a generally poor prognosis. Areas covered: This article describes the complexity of Stage III-N2 patients reviewing the outcomes of key clinical trials while highlighting the trial designs and subtleties that have created controversy in management. Both bimodality approaches combining chemotherapy with either surgery or radiation and trimodality approaches combining chemotherapy with both local therapies are reviewed. Finally, prognostic factors and future directions are explored for the management of this population. Expert commentary: Upfront surgery is not recommended for patients with Stage III-N2 NSCLC. Neoadjuvant approaches with both chemotherapy and chemoradiation are acceptable in a multidisciplinary setting if appropriate surgery is performed by a dedicated thoracic surgeon. Non-operative candidates should receive definitive concurrent chemoradiation. Innovative approaches are necessary to improve outcomes in this population.

Intraoperative frozen sections of the regional lymph nodes contribute to surgical decision-making in non-small cell lung cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Individualization of pulmonary parenchymal resection and lymphadenectomy in lung cancer patients will likely become more important as surgical innovation. This study explored the utility of intraoperative pathological frozen sections of regional lymph nodes in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients.

METHODS

Patients with NSCLC underwent intraoperative sampling of N1 station lymph nodes depending on the location of the tumor, any other suspicious lymph nodes were also biopsied. The contribution of frozen-section analysis to surgical decision-making was evaluated.

RESULTS

Of 74 lung cancer patients who underwent intraoperative frozen section analysis of lymph nodes, the positive rate was 18/74 (24.3%). The extents of agreement between preoperative N staging (cN) and intraoperative N staging (sN), cN staging and postoperative N staging (pN), and sN staging and pN staging were 62.2% (46/74), 63.5% (47/74), and 71.6% (53/74), respectively. When frozen section was combined with evaluation of pulmonary function and intrathoracic adhesions, surgical strategies were modified during operations in 18 cases (5 sN-positive, 13 sN-negative). Of these patients, five underwent extensive pulmonary parenchymal resection, and four had conservative lung parenchymal resection. In nine patients, the extent of lymph node dissection (LND) was changed.

CONCLUSIONS

Intraoperative frozen section of regional lymph nodes led to 24.3% operative strategies modification in lung cancer. Frozen section analysis may make an important contribution to surgical decision-making in terms of pulmonary parenchymal resection and LND.

Recent advances in endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration

Endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration (EBUS-TBNA) is a minimally invasive modality for sampling of mediastinal and hilar lymph nodes as well as pulmonary lesions adjacent to the airway. Guidelines for staging of lung cancer suggest that EBUS-TBNA should be considered the best first test of nodal staging for radiologically abnormal lymph nodes that are accessible by this approach. The application of EBUS-TBNA in pulmonary medicine and thoracic oncology is expanding with its role in the diagnosis of sarcoidosis, lymphoma, and tuberculosis. Especially for patients with early-stage sarcoidosis with adenopathy and minimal changes in the lung parenchyma, EBUS-TBNA has a significantly higher diagnostic yield compared to the conventional bronchoscopic modalities. Multidirectional analysis of samples obtained by EBUS-TBNA has allowed assessment of lymphoma and molecular analysis in lung cancer. Histological evaluation with immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, fluorescence in situ hybridization, and chromosome analysis can be performed if good-quality samples can be obtained. Molecular analyses such as identification of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutation and anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) fusion gene detection now are being performed routinely with good sampling. One of the advantages of EBUS-TBNA is the ability to perform repeat procedures in a minimally invasive way. Restaging of the mediastinum after induction therapy can be done safely and with ease compared to repeat surgical procedures. With improvement in molecular analysis technology, comprehensive gene expression analysis will become important in the management of patients with lung cancer. Further advances in EBUS technology and needles for tissue sampling likely will help bronchoscopists to acquire ideal tissue.

Semiautomatic Analysis on Computed Tomography in Locally Advanced or Metastatic Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: Reproducibility and Prognostic Significance of Unidimensional and 3-dimensional Measurements

PURPOSE

The aim of the study was to compare both reproducibility and prognostic value of lesion size measurements obtained manually and semiautomatically on computed tomography in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Manual axial longest diameter, semiautomatic axial longest diameter, and volume of NSCLC lesions were independently analyzed by 4 readers at baseline and after at least 1 cycle of platinum-based chemotherapy. The prognostic value of the proportional change in lesion size between baseline and follow-up CT was evaluated using either RECIST or experimental thresholds derived from the quartiles of the changes as assessed manually or semiautomatically.

RESULTS

Semiautomatic axial longest diameter (concordance correlation coefficient [CCC]: 0.980 to 0.987; variation coefficient [VC%]: 6% to 7.3%) and volume (CCC: 0.974 to 0.991; VC%: 5.6% to 9.5%) were more reproducible than manual axial longest diameter (CCC: 0.950 to 0.984; VC%: 6.4% to 11.7%). RECIST categories did not stratify patients with different survival durations. For 3/4 readers, a decrease of ≤ 70% in lesion volume was associated with shorter survival (median survival: 11 mo, P < 0.05; hazard ratio: 5 to 22.2, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

In advanced NSCLC, semiautomatic measures were more reproducible than manual diameter, and volumetric measurement may better predict patient survival.

[Endobronchial ultrasound transbronchial needle aspiration initiation into the Lyon Sud hospital center: Experience of the first three years]

INTRODUCTION

Endobronchial ultrasound is a recent technique for the diagnosis and the lymph node staging in lung cancer. It also showed interest in non tumoral mediastinal lymph nodes diagnosis. This work relates the CHLS first three years' experience in terms of EEB practical use as a new diagnostic tool in this field.

METHODS

Retrospective study of consecutive cases patients having undergone endobronchial ultrasound from November 2008 till June 2011 in the CHLS.

RESULTS

On 65 endobronchial ultrasound, general anesthesia was practiced in 89 % of the cases, with a good tolerance in 81 % of the cases. In 77 % cases, EEB allowed diagnosis and avoided mediastinoscopy in 60.5 % of the cases. The respective sensibility, specificity, positive and negative predictive values were 74 %, 100 %, 100 % and 48 %.

CONCLUSION

These data, reflect of a novice team experience, illustrate the results obtained in the current practice in terms of etiologic diagnosis. Endobronchial ultrasound seems destined to a bright future but requires the development of dedicated centers allowing pulmonologists training and specialized pathologists in this field.

Postinduction positron emission tomography assessment of N2 nodes is not associated with ypN2 disease or overall survival in stage IIIA non-small cell lung cancer

OBJECTIVE

Induction therapy is often recommended for patients with clinical stage IIIA-N2 (cIIIA/pN2) lung cancer. We examined whether postinduction positron emission tomography (PET) scans were associated with ypN2 disease and survival of patients with cIIIA/pN2 disease.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective review of a prospectively maintained database to identify patients with cIIIA/pN2 non-small cell lung cancer treated with induction chemotherapy followed by surgery between January 2007 and December 2012. The primary aim was the association between postinduction PET avidity and ypN2 status; the secondary aims were overall survival, disease-free survival, and recurrence.

RESULTS

Persistent pathologic N2 disease was present in 61% of patients (61 out of 100). PET N2-negative disease increased from 7% (6 out of 92) before induction therapy to 47% (36 out of 77) afterward. The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of postinduction PET for identification of ypN2 disease were 59%, 55%, and 57%, respectively. Logistic regression analysis indicated that postinduction PET N2 status was not associated with ypN2 disease. Of the 39 patients with both pre- and postinduction PET N2-avidity, 25 (64%) had ypN2 disease. The 5-year overall survival was 40% for ypN2 disease versus 38% for N2-persistent disease (P = .936); the 5-year overall survival was 43% for postinduction PET N2-negative disease versus 39% for N2-avid disease (P = .251). The 5-year disease-free survival was 34% for ypN2-negative disease versus 9% for N2-persistent disease (P = .079).

CONCLUSIONS

Postinduction PET avidity for N2 nodes is not associated with ypN2 disease, overall survival, or disease-free survival in patients undergoing induction chemotherapy for stage IIIA/pN2 disease.

Surgical treatment of early-stage non-small-cell lung cancer

Surgical resection remains the standard of care for functionally operable early-stage non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and resectable stage IIIA disease. The role of invasive staging and restaging techniques is currently being debated, but they provide the largest biopsy samples which allow for precise mediastinal staging. Different types of operative procedures are currently available to the thoracic surgeon, and some of these interventions can be performed by video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS) with the same oncological results as those by open thoracotomy. The principal aim of surgical treatment for NSCLC is to obtain a complete resection which has been precisely defined by a working group of the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer (IASLC). Intraoperative staging of lung cancer is of utmost importance to decide on the extent of resection according to the intraoperative tumour (T) and nodal (N) status. Systematic nodal dissection is generally advocated to evaluate the hilar and mediastinal lymph nodes which are subdivided into seven zones according to the most recent 7th tumour-node-metastasis (TNM) classification. Lymph-node involvement not only determines prognosis but also the administration of adjuvant therapy.

In 2011, a new multidisciplinary adenocarcinoma classification was published introducing the concepts of adenocarcinoma in situ and minimally invasive adenocarcinoma. This classification has profound surgical implications. The role of limited or sublobar resection, comprising anatomical segmentectomy and wide wedge resection, is reconsidered for early-stage lesions which are more frequently encountered with the recently introduced large screening programmes. Numerous retrospective non-randomised studies suggest that sublobar resection may be an acceptable surgical treatment for early lung cancers, also when performed by VATS.

More tailored, personalised therapy has recently been introduced. Quality-of-life parameters and surgical quality indicators become increasingly important to determine the short-term and long-term impact of a surgical procedure. International databases currently collect extensive surgical data, allowing more precise calculation of mortality and morbidity according to predefined risk factors. Centralisation of care has been shown to improve results. Evidence-based guidelines should be further developed to provide optimal staging and therapeutic algorithms.

Current methods of staging and restaging of the mediastinal nodes in non-small-cell lung cancer

To analyze the current methods of primary staging and repeated staging (restaging) of the mediastinal nodes in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), all methods currently used for staging of NSCLC are analyzed. These methods include imaging techniques [computer tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET) combined with CT (PET/CT)], endoscopic/ultrasound techniques (endobronchial ultrasound/transbronchial needle aspiration) and endoscopic ultrasound/fine needle aspiration and surgical techniques [standard cervical mediastinoscopy, video-assisted mediastinoscopy, extended mediastinoscopy, video-assisted mediastinoscopic lymphadenectomy, transcervical extended mediastinal lymphadenectomy, anterior mediastinotomy (Chamberlain procedure) and video-assisted thoracic surgery]. The diagnostic yield of Chest CT is regarded insufficient for both, primary staging and restaging. The PET/CT became a standard imaging technique preceding curative surgery of radical chemo-radiotherapy. The issue of intraoperative staging is also described. Finally, the author’s proposed algorithm of staging, both for primary staging and restaging after neoadjuvant therapy is presented. Detailed staging of NSCLC enables selection of patients with early stage disease for curative surgical/multimodality treatment and helps to avoid unnecessary surgery in advanced disease.

Interpretation and Prognostic Value of Positron Emission Tomography-Computed Tomography After Induction Chemotherapy With or Without Radiation in IIIA-N2 Non-small Cell Lung Cancer Patients Who Receive Curative Surgery

We evaluate the correlation of clinical staging on positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) and pathologic staging and the prognostic value of PET-CT after induction chemotherapy in patients with locally advanced nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC). We analyzed 42 cases of clinical stage IIIA-N2 NSCLC who receive 2 to 4 cycles of preoperative chemotherapy with or without radiation followed by curative resection. The maximum standard uptake value (SUVmax) of the suspected lesion on PET-CT was recorded. PET-CT findings after induction chemotherapy were compared with those of initial PET-CT and pathology after surgery. The accuracy of PET-CT in restaging of the primary tumor after induction chemotherapy was 50.0%. Eighteen (42.8%) of 42 patients were underestimated ycT stage, and 3 (7.1%) of 42 patients was overestimated ycT stage by PET-CT scan. The accuracy of PET-CT in restaging of the nodal disease was 71.4%. Six (14.3%) of 42 patients were underestimated ycN stage, and 6 (14.3%) of 42 patients were overestimated ycN stage as compared with pathologic staging. The 2-year overall survival (OS) and relapse-free survival (RFS) rate were 68.5% and 40.9%, respectively. Complete responders (ycT0N0M0) on PET-CT after induction chemotherapy had a significantly longer RFS time than did incomplete responders (28.3 vs 9.1 months, P = 0.021). Complete response on PET-CT after induction chemotherapy with or without radiation was a good prognosticator for RFS in stage IIIA-N2 NSCLC patients who received surgery. However, response evaluation on PET-CT after induction chemotherapy should be interpreted with caution due to its unacceptable accuracy.

Staging of lung cancer: the role of noninvasive, minimally invasive and invasive techniques

Accurate staging and restaging of primary tumour and mediastinal nodes in patients with lung cancer is of significant importance. For primary tumours, computed tomography (CT) scans of the chest are recommended. Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging should be used in patients with curative intent treatment to evaluate metastatic disease. Diagnosis of the primary tumour should be performed using bronchoscopy or CT-guided transthoracic needle aspiration. In patients with enlarged mediastinal nodes and no distant metastasis, invasive staging of the mediastinum is required. For suspicious N2 or N3 disease, endoscopic needle techniques, such as endobronchial ultrasound and transbronchial needle aspiration, oesophageal ultrasound and fine needle aspiration, or a combination of both, are preferred to any surgical staging technique. In cases of suspicious nodes and negative results using needle aspiration techniques, invasive surgical staging using mediastinoscopy or video-assisted thoracic surgery should be performed. In central tumours or N1 nodes, preoperative invasive staging is indicated.Restaging after induction therapy remains a controversial topic. Today, neither CT, PET nor PET/CT scans are accurate enough to make final further therapeutic decisions for mediastinal nodal involvement. An invasive technique providing cytohistological information is still recommended.

Can EBUS-TBNA provide an accurate diagnosis in patients found to have enlarged or FDG-avid lymph nodes during surveillance of previously treated lung cancer? A retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Reliable pathologic sampling methods are pivotal in the management of lung cancer patients who have undergone either curative intent or palliative treatment previously. Early diagnosis of localized disease recurrence may facilitate further curative treatment and rebiopsy at the point of disease progression during palliative treatment can inform further management. This study assessed the performance of endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration (EBUS-TBNA) lymph node sampling in a cohort of such patients.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of a prospectively maintained database of EBUS-TBNA procedures at the University Hospital of South Manchester from August 2010 to August 2013. All patients with previously treated lung cancer and suspected nodal metastases (defined as nodal enlargement on CT>10 mm in the short axis or abnormal FDG avidity on PET-CT) were included.

RESULTS

The sensitivity of EBUS-TBNA, on a per patient and per lymph node basis, was 91.4% and 91.8%, respectively (CI, 80.8%-96.5%). The corresponding NPV was 87.5% and 89.7%, respectively (CI, 76.4%-95.9%). There were no major complications and 3 (5.4%) minor complications. From the malignant EBUS-TBNA samples, the NSCLC-NOS rate was 3.2% and adequate tissue for molecular testing was provided in 100% of the cases (16/16).

CONCLUSIONS

EBUS-TBNA is a safe and highly effective diagnostic procedure in suspected nodal metastases after previous treatment for lung cancer. The sensitivity and NPV are equivalent to EBUS-TBNA in the diagnosis of "new" lung cancer.

Predictive factors for survival in stage IIIA N2 NSCLC patients treated with neoadjuvant CCRT followed by surgery

PURPOSE

To assess the impact of imaging, surgical, histopathologic and patient-related factors on the risks of recurrence and overall survival (OS) in stage IIIA-N2 non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients undergoing definitive resection after neoadjuvant concurrent chemoradiotherapy (CCRT).

METHODS

We retrospectively examined 104 consecutive patients with stage IIIA-N2 NSCLC who received neoadjuvant CCRT followed by surgery between 2008 and 2011. While reviewing the clinical and surgical data, we also assessed histopathologic and imaging (CT and PET/CT) factors. Disease-free survival (DFS) and OS were estimated with predictors for recurrence and survival.

RESULTS

The 3-year OS for patients with and without recurrence was 37.1 and 63.3 %, respectively (p < 0.001). Size decrease of target lesion(s) ≥36 % on post-neoadjuvant CCRT CT (p = 0.048) and viable tumor size on surgical specimen <9.4 mm (p = 0.035) were related to longer OS. Regarding shorter DFS, tumor size on post-neoadjuvant CCRT CT (p = 0.046), SUV(max) of the primary tumor (p = 0.011), male gender (p = 0.023), total tumor size on surgical specimen (p = 0.041) and viable tumor size on surgical specimen (p = 0.043) were the significant predictors.

CONCLUSIONS

OS is prolonged with greater extent of size decrease of target lesion(s) on post-neoadjuvant CCRT CT and smaller viable tumor size on surgical specimen. Larger tumor size on post-neoadjuvant CCRT CT, higher SUV(max), male gender, larger total tumor size and larger viable tumor size on surgical specimen may herald the higher probability of recurrence and the necessity of more attention.

The efficacy of restaging endobronchial ultrasound in patients with non-small cell lung cancer after preoperative therapy

BACKGROUND

Patient selection for surgery after neoadjuvant therapy for locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer depends on accurate restaging of mediastinal (N2) lymph nodes. Our objective is to assess the accuracy of endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) for restaging N2 lymph nodes after neoadjuvant therapy.

METHODS

This is a retrospective review of patients with non-small cell lung cancer who underwent staging with repeat computed tomography and positron emission tomography and had restaging EBUS for sampling of N2 lymph nodes. Endobronchial ultrasound was performed for suspicious nodes in stations 2R, 2L, 4R, 4L, and 7. Selected patients who were N2-negative underwent thoracotomy with complete thoracic lymphadenectomy.

RESULTS

There were 32 patients with N2 disease who underwent preoperative chemotherapy or radiotherapy, or both, and subsequently had restaging EBUS. There were 3 patients who had recalcitrant N2 nodal disease detected by EBUS. There were 5 patients with pulmonary function or comorbidities that were prohibitive for surgery. Of the remaining 24 patients with negative EBUS, 3 underwent mediastinoscopy and 2 had recalcitrant N2 disease. The remaining 22 patients underwent thoracotomy. Recalcitrant N2 disease was noted in 1 patient at thoracotomy in the EBUS-assessable nodal stations. Thus EBUS was falsely negative in 3 patients. The sensitivity and negative predictive value of restaging EBUS were 50% and 88%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Restaging EBUS is relatively accurate at predicting the absence of metastatic disease in N2 mediastinal lymph node in patients who underwent neoadjuvant therapy for non-small cell lung cancer.

PET/CT in therapy evaluation of patients with lung cancer

FDG-PET/CT is a well documented and widespread used imaging modality for the diagnosis and staging of patient with lung cancer. FDG-PET/CT is increasingly used for the assessment of treatment effects during and after chemotherapy. However, PET is not an accepted surrogate end-point for assessment of response rate in clinical trials. The aim of this review is to present current evidence on the use of PET in response evaluation of patients with lung cancer and to introduce the pearls and pitfalls of the PET-technology relating to response assessment. Based on this and relating to validation criteria, including stable technology, standardization, reproducibility and broad availability, the review discusses why, despite numerous studies on response assessment indicating a possible role for FDG-PET/CT, PET still has no place in guidelines relating to response evaluation in lung cancer.

Diagnostic efficacy of PET and PET/CT for recurrent lung cancer: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Lung cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors in the world, and is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality. Although there are no conclusive data to support the survival benefits of early detection or early treatment for recurrence, an early and accurate diagnosis of recurrence is critical to optimize therapy.

PURPOSE

To compare the diagnostic value of positron emission tomography (PET) and positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) using fluorine-18 deoxyglucose (18FDG) with conventional imaging techniques (CITs) for the detection of lung cancer recurrence.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A meta-analysis was performed, with systematic searches conducted using PubMed and EMBASE databases (up to 31 December 2011). Pooled sensitivity, specificity, and diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) values were calculated for 1035 patients reported in 13 articles. Summary receiver-operating characteristic curves (SROC) were also generated.

RESULTS

The pooled sensitivity (95% CI) for PET, PET/CT, and CITs were 0.94 (0.91-0.97), 0.90 (0.84-0.95), and 0.78 (0.71-0.84), respectively. The pooled specificity (95% CI) for PET, PET/CT, and CITs were 0.84 (0.77-0.89), 0.90 (0.87-0.93), and 0.80 (0.75-0.84), respectively. Regarding sensitivity, lower values were associated with CITs than PET (P = 0.000) and PET/CT (P = 0.005), and there was no significant difference between PET/CT and PET (P = 0.102). Regarding specificity, values for PET/CT and PET were significantly higher than for CITs (both P = 0.000), and there was no significant difference between PET/CT and PET (P = 0.273). In the SROC curves, a better diagnostic accuracy was associated with PET/CT than PET and CITs.

CONCLUSION

PET/CT and PET were found to be superior modalities for the detection of recurrent lung cancer, and PET/CT was superior to PET.

Radiographic evaluation of the patient with lung cancer: surgical implications of imaging

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in the United States. Despite many advances in treatment, surgery remains the preferred treatment modality for patients presenting with early stage disease. Imaging is critical in the preoperative evaluation of these patients being considered for a curative resection. Advanced imaging techniques provide valuable information, including primary diagnostics, staging, and intraoperative localization for suspected lung cancer. Knowledge of surgical implications of imaging findings can aid both radiologists and surgeons in delivering safe and effective care.

Molecular imaging to identify tumor recurrence following chemoradiation in a hostile surgical environment

Surgical biopsy of potential tumor recurrence is a common challenge facing oncologists, surgeons, and cancer patients. Imaging modalities have limited ability to accurately detect recurrent cancer in fields affected by previous surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation. However, definitive tissue diagnosis is often needed to initiate treatment and to direct therapy. We sought to determine if a targeted fluorescent intraoperative molecular imaging technique could be applied in a clinical setting to assist a surgical biopsy in a "hostile" field. We describe the use of a folate-fluorescein conjugate to direct the biopsy of a suspected recurrent lung adenocarcinoma invading the mediastinum that had been previously treated with chemoradiation. We found that intraoperative imaging allowed the identification of small viable tumor deposits that were otherwise indistinguishable from scar and necrosis. Our operative observations were confirmed by histology, fluorescence microscopy, and immunohistochemistry. Our results demonstrate one possible application and clinical value of intraoperative molecular imaging.

18F-FDG-PET evaluation of pathological tumour response to neoadjuvant therapy in patients with NSCLC

OBJECTIVES

The ability to identify potential responders to neoadjuvant treatment may improve patient selection or surgery and may help in the development of response criteria suitable for routine monitoring of response. The aim of this study was to evaluate the value of PET in predicting the pathological tumour response of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) to neoadjuvant therapy using a meta-analysis.

METHODS

All available published studies investigating the value of PET in predicting the pathological response of NSCLC to neoadjuvant therapy were collected. Pooled sensitivity and specificity data were obtained using statistical software. Subgroup analysis was performed to explore the sources of heterogeneity.

RESULTS

A total of 13 studies comprising 414 patients with NSCLC were included in the meta-analysis. Pooled sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value for PET-predicted response was 83% [95% confidence interval (CI); 76-89%], 84% (95% CI; 79-88%), 74% (95% CI; 67-81%) and 91% (95% CI; 87-94%), respectively. Significant heterogeneity (P<0.05) was observed. On the basis of our subgroup analyses, methodological quality could be responsible for this heterogeneity in our metaregression. The predictive value of PET in NSCLC patients with pathological response (considered the gold standard) was significantly higher than that of computed tomography (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

PET scanning has an important role in predicting nonresponders to neoadjuvant therapy in cases of NSCLC, and the predictive value of PET for evaluating pathologically documented responses is superior to that of computed tomography. However, additional evaluations using prospective clinical trials will be required to assess the clinical benefit of this strategy.

Prospective phase II trial of preresection thoracoscopic mediastinal restaging after neoadjuvant therapy for IIIA (N2) non-small cell lung cancer: results of CALGB Protocol 39803

OBJECTIVE

Accurate pathologic restaging of N2 stations after neoadjuvant therapy in stage IIIA (N2) non-small cell lung cancer is needed.

METHODS

A prospective multi-institutional trial was designed to judge the feasibility of videothoracoscopy to restage the ipsilateral nodes in mediastinoscopy-proven stage IIIA (N2) non-small cell lung cancer after 2 cycles of platinum-based chemotherapy and/or 40 Gy or more of radiotherapy. The goals included biopsy of 3 negative N2 node stations or to identify 1 positive N2 node or pleural carcinomatosis.

RESULTS

Ten institutions accrued 68 subjects. Of the 68 subjects, 46 (68%) underwent radiotherapy and 66 (97%) underwent chemotherapy. Videothoracoscopy successfully met the prestudy feasibility in 27 patients (40%): 3 negative stations confirmed at thoracotomy in 7, persistent stage N2 disease in 16, and pleural carcinomatosis in 4. In 20 procedures (29%), no N2 disease was found, 3 stations were not biopsied because of unanticipated nodal obliteration. Thus, 47 videothoracoscopy procedures (69%, 95% confidence interval, 57%-80%) restaged the mediastinum. Videothoracoscopy was unsuccessful in 21 patients (31%) because the procedure had to be aborted (n = 11) or because of false-negative stations (n = 10). Of the 21 failures, 15 were right-sided, and 10 had a positive 4R node. The sensitivity of videothoracoscopy was 67% (95% confidence interval, 47%-83%), and the negative predictive value was 73% (95% confidence interval, 56%-86%) if patients with obliterated nodal tissue were included. The sensitivity was 83% (95% confidence interval, 63%-95%) and the negative predictive value was 64% (95% confidence interval, 31%-89%) if those patients were excluded. The specificity was 100%. One death occurred after thoracotomy.

CONCLUSIONS

Videothoracoscopy restaging was "feasible" in this prospective multi-institutional trial and provided pathologic specimens of the ipsilateral nodes. Videothoracoscopy restaging was limited by radiation and the 4R nodal station.

Performance of integrated positron emission tomography/computed tomography for mediastinal nodal staging in non-small cell lung carcinoma

Integrated positron emission tomography (PET)/CT is routinely used for mediastinal nodal staging of non-small cell lung carcinoma in centers throughout the world. This modality is the most accurate noninvasive means by which to identify metastatic disease in mediastinal lymph nodes. This article reviews the evidence supporting the use of PET/CT and discusses the clinical applicability of this modality.