Axillary reverse mapping to prevent lymphedema after breast cancer surgery: defining the limits of the concept

The effectiveness of axillary reverse mapping in preventing breast cancer-related lymphedema: a meta-analysis based on randomized controlled trials

Background

Here, we carried out an extensive meta-analysis to investigate the effectiveness of the use of axillary reverse mapping (ARM) during axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) in preventing breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL).

Methods

Database searches to identify relevant randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were performed of MEDLINE (PubMed), Web of Science, Embase, and the Cochrane Library. Eligible articles with a publication date from database establishment to December 2020 were retrieved by combining keywords including: "breast cancer", "breast carcinoma", "breast neoplasm", "axillary reverse mapping", "axillary lymph node dissection", "lymphatic arm drainage", and "lymphedema". Independent data extraction was conducted, and Review Manager (version 5.3) was used for statistical analyses.

Results

Five eligible RCTs were included in the meta-analysis. A total of 37 patients suffered arm lymphedema (37/786, 4.71%) in the experimental group (ARM during ALND), compared with 164 arm lymphedemas (164/873, 18.79%) in the control group (ALND alone). The results showed that ARM during ALND was superior to ALND alone in reducing the incidence of BCRL [OR =0.20, 95% confidence intervals (CI): 0.13-0.29, P<0.00001]; however, the 2 procedures did not differ significantly in terms of oncological safety or shoulder movement (OR =0.30, 95% CI: 0.03-2.96, P=0.30; OR =0.44, 95% CI: 0.14-1.40, P=0.17).

Conclusions

ARM during ALND can prevent and reduce the occurrence of BCRL in patients with early-stage BC during long-term follow-up. Due to the limited number of RCTs available, more in-depth, high-quality RCTs are urgently needed to provide a reliable and convincing basis for the application of ARM during ALND.

Diagnostic Accuracy of Clinical Measures Considering Segmental Tissue Composition and Volume Changes of Breast Cancer-Related Lymphedema

Background: If we use only volumetry for measuring lymphedema, we could underdiagnose lymphedema with characteristics of biomechanical changes without definite volume change, especially in the medial forearm.

Methods and Results: In total, 158 breast cancer patients participated in this study. Arm volume was measured by water displacement volumetry, and segmental volumes were calculated from circumferences by using the truncated cone method. Subcutaneous ultrasound echogenicities were assessed on the medial side of the upper arm and forearm of both arms and graded by subcutaneous echogenicity grade (SEG) and revised SEG (rSEG). The standards for diagnosing secondary lymphedema were according to the volume change and clinical stage. Sensitivity, specificity, receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curve, and area under the curve (AUC) were used. Analysis of ROC curves yielded AUCs of 0.875–0.933 (p < 0.001). Volume differences in each segment were significantly different among the grades by SEG. The highest AUC was found for volume difference (AUC = 0.919, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.860–0.978) in the upper arm near the elbow; however, in the medial forearm, the highest AUC was found for rSEG (AUC = 0.948, 95% CI = 0.923–0.965 in the proximal forearm; AUC = 0.940, 95% CI = 0.923–0.965 in the distal forearm).

Conclusions: Our findings support the use of SEG by ultrasound in the assessment of lymphedema, especially in the medial region of the forearm. Subcutaneous ultrasound echogenicities may improve the accuracy of diagnosis of lymphedema in the forearm.

Evaluation of Stiffness in Postmastectomy Lymphedema Using Acoustic Radiation Force Impulse Imaging: A Prospective Randomized Controlled Study for Identifying the Optimal Pneumatic Compression Pressure to Reduce Stiffness

PURPOSE

We aimed to assess the improvement in stiffness in patients with postmastectomy lymphedema (PMLE) after intermittent pneumatic compression (IPC) using acoustic radiation force impulse (ARFI) imaging and evaluate the effects of different IPC pressures.

METHODS

We randomly assigned 45 patients with PMLE (stage II) to three groups based on the IPC pressure: 25, 35, and 45 mmHg. Patients received a single session of IPC for 30 minutes. We recorded the subcutaneous tissue thickness of the proximal upper limbs using ultrasonography and circumference of the upper limbs and stiffness using ARFI before and immediately after IPC.

RESULTS

Arm circumference and subcutaneous tissue thickness were significantly decreased after IPC in all groups. The shear wave velocity (SWV) decreased after IPC in all groups, but significantly decreased only in the 35 mmHg group. The subcutaneous tissue thickness and SWV in the 35 mmHg group were significantly decreased compared to the other groups.

CONCLUSION

IPC can reduce stiffness and subcutaneous tissue thickness of the proximal upper arm in patients with PMLE. A pressure of 35 mmHg yields the largest improvement of stiffness; higher compression pressure did not yield any additional improvement.

Complexities of Adherence and Post-Cancer Lymphedema Management

Breast cancer survivors are at increased risk for breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL), a chronic, debilitating, condition that is progressive and requires lifelong self-management. Up to 40% of 3 million breast cancer survivors in the US will develop BCRL, which has no cure, is irreversible, and requires self-management with regimens that may include multiple components. The complexities of treatment can negatively affect adherence to BCRL self-management which is critical to preventing progressive swelling and infection. The aim of this review of contemporary literature published from 2005-2015 is to examine the complexities of BCRL self-management, to identify adherence-focused studies relevant to BCRL, and to summarize barriers to self-management of BCRL. Six electronic indices were searched from which 120 articles were retrieved; 17 were BCRL-focused; and eight met inclusion criteria. Seventeen of 120 articles identified barriers to self-management of BCRL such as complexities of treatment regimens, symptom burden, balance of time for treatment and life demands, and lack of education and support; however, only eight studies included outcome measures of adherence to BCRL treatment regimens with a subsequent improvement in reduced limb volumes and/or perceptions of self-efficacy and self-regulation. A major limitation is the few number of rigorously developed outcome measures of BCRL adherence. In addition, randomized studies are needed with larger sample sizes to establish adequate levels of evidence for establishing best practice standards for improving adherence to BCRL self-management treatment regimens.

Surveillance recommendations in reducing risk of and optimally managing breast cancer-related lymphedema

Breast cancer survivors are at increased risk for the development of breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL), a chronic, debilitating, and disfiguring condition that is progressive and requires lifelong self-management of symptoms. It has been reported that over 40% of the 2.5 million breast cancer survivors in the United States may meet the criteria for BCRL during their lifetimes. Ongoing surveillance, beginning with pre-operative assessment, has been effective in identifying subclinical lymphedema (LE). A prospective model for surveillance is necessary in order to detect BCRL at an early stage when there is the best chance to reduce risk or slow progression. Physical methods for monitoring and assessment, such as circumferential arm measures, perometry, bioimpedance; exercise programs; prophylactic and early-intervention compression garments; and referral for complete decongestive therapy are all interventions to consider in the development of a BCRL surveillance program. In addition, supportive-educative programs and interactive engagement for symptom self-management should also be implemented. The importance of interdisciplinary collaboration is integral to the success of an effective personalized medicine program in breast cancer-related lymphedema surveillance.

Axillary reverse mapping in breast cancer: a Canadian experience

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to evaluate the axillary reverse lymphatic mapping (ARM) procedure for reducing the risk of arm lymphedema after breast cancer surgery.

METHODS

The ARM procedure was carried out with a subareolar injection of technetium-99 sulfur colloid the morning of surgery, and a patent blue dye injection into the upper inner arm after anesthesia.

RESULTS

Fifty-two women made up our study population. Thirty-seven patients underwent sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) and 15 patients underwent an axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) for known nodal metastasis. The sentinel lymph node was identified in 36 of the 37 cases who underwent SLNB alone and in 12 of 15 patients who underwent on ALND. In 13 patients, both blue and radioactive lymph nodes or lymphatics were clearly identified (25%) and 5 patients had a clear crossover with nodes being both blue and hot. Only a single patient with crossover lymphatics had metastases present in their sentinel node.

CONCLUSION

The ARM technique did not prevent identification of the SLN and we identified much greater crossover than reported. We had a single patient, who underwent a sentinel node biopsy, with mild arm lymphedema (1.9%) after 2 years of follow up.

A randomized controlled trial comparing two types of pneumatic compression for breast cancer-related lymphedema treatment in the home

Purpose

Pneumatic compression devices (PCDs) are used in the home setting as adjunctive treatment for lymphedema after acute treatment in a clinical setting. PCDs range in complexity from simple to technologically advanced. The objective of this prospective, randomized study was to determine whether an advanced PCD (APCD) provides better outcomes as measured by arm edema and tissue water reductions compared to a standard PCD (SPCD) in patients with arm lymphedema after breast cancer treatment.

Methods

Subjects were randomized to an APCD (Flexitouch system, HCPCS E0652) or SPCD (Bio Compression 2004, HCPCS E0651) used for home treatment 1 h/day for 12 weeks. Pressure settings were 30 mmHg for the SPCD and upper extremity treatment program (UE01) with standard pressure for the APCD. Thirty-six subjects (18 per group) with unilateral upper extremity lymphedema with at least 5% arm edema volume at the time of enrollment, completed treatments over the 12-week period. Arm volumes were determined from arm girth measurements and suitable model calculations, and tissue water was determined based on measurements of the arm tissue dielectric constant (TDC).

Results

The APCD-treated group experienced an average of 29% reduction in edema compared to a 16% increase in the SPCD group. Mean changes in TDC values were a 5.8% reduction for the APCD group and a 1.9% increase for the SPCD group.

Conclusion

This study suggests that for the home maintenance phase of treatment of arm lymphedema secondary to breast cancer therapy, the adjuvant treatment with an APCD provides better outcomes than with a SPCD.

Direct evidence of lymphatic function improvement after advanced pneumatic compression device treatment of lymphedema

Lymphedema affects up to 50% of all breast cancer survivors. Management with pneumatic compression devices (PCDs) is controversial, owing to the lack of methods to directly assess benefit. This pilot study employed an investigational, near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging technique to evaluate lymphatic response to PCD therapy in normal control and breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL) subjects. Lymphatic propulsion rate, apparent lymph velocity, and lymphatic vessel recruitment were measured before, during, and after advanced PCD therapy. Lymphatic function improved in all control subjects and all asymptomatic arms of BCRL subjects. Lymphatic function improved in 4 of 6 BCRL affected arms, improvement defined as proximal movement of dye after therapy. NIR fluorescence lymphatic imaging may be useful to directly evaluate lymphatic response to therapy. These results suggest that PCDs can stimulate lymphatic function and may be an effective method to manage BCRL, warranting future clinical trials.