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Keane F, Chou JF, Walch H, Schoenfeld J, Singhal A, Cowzer D, Harrold E, O'Connor C, Park W, Varghese A, El Dika I, Balogun F, Yu KH, Capanu M, Schultz N, Yaeger R, O'Reilly EM. Precision medicine for pancreatic cancer: Characterizing the clinico-genomic landscape and outcomes of KRAS G12C-mutated disease. J Natl Cancer Inst 2024:djae095. [PMID: 38702822 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djae095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mutated KRAS is the most common oncogene alteration in pancreatic cancer (PDAC), and KRAS G12C mutations (KRAS G12Cmut) are observed in 1-2%. Several inhibitors of KRAS G12C have recently demonstrated promise in solid tumors, including PDAC. Little is known regarding clinical, genomics and outcome data of this population. METHODS Patients with PDAC and KRAS G12Cmut were identified at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (MSK), and via the AACR Project GENIE database. Clinical, treatment, genomic and outcomes data were analysed. A cohort of patients at MSK with non-G12C KRAS PDAC was included for comparison. RESULTS Among 3,571 patients with PDAC, 39 with KRAS G12Cmut were identified (1.1%). Median age was 67 years, 56% were female. Median BMI was 29.2 kg/m2, 67% had a smoking history. Median OS 13 months (9.4, not reached (NR)) for stage IV, and 26 months (23, NR) for stage I-III. Complete genomic data (via AACR GENIE) was available for N = 74. Most common co-alterations included: TP53 (73%), CDKN2A (33%), SMAD4 (28%), and ARID1A (21%). Compared with a large cohort (N = 2931) of non-G12C KRAS-mutated PDAC, ARID1A co-mutations were more frequent in KRAS G12Cmut (P < .05). OS did not differ between KRAS G12Cmut and non-G12C KRAS PDAC. Germline pathogenic variants were identified in 17%. N = 2 received KRAS G12C-directed therapy. CONCLUSION PDAC and KRAS G12Cmut may be associated with a distinct clinical phenotype. Genomic features are similar to non-G12C KRAS-mutated PDAC, although enrichment of ARID1A co-mutations was observed. Targeting of KRAS G12C in PDAC provides a precedent for broader KRAS targeting in PDAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fergus Keane
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
- David M. Rubenstein Center for Pancreas Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Joanne F Chou
- Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
| | - Henry Walch
- Marie-Josée and Henry R. Kravis Center for Molecular Oncology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
| | - Joshua Schoenfeld
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
- David M. Rubenstein Center for Pancreas Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Anupriya Singhal
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
- David M. Rubenstein Center for Pancreas Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Darren Cowzer
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
| | - Emily Harrold
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
| | - Catherine O'Connor
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
- David M. Rubenstein Center for Pancreas Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Wungki Park
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
- David M. Rubenstein Center for Pancreas Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Anna Varghese
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
- David M. Rubenstein Center for Pancreas Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Imane El Dika
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Fiyinfolu Balogun
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
- David M. Rubenstein Center for Pancreas Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kenneth H Yu
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
- David M. Rubenstein Center for Pancreas Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Marinela Capanu
- Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
| | - Nikolaus Schultz
- Marie-Josée and Henry R. Kravis Center for Molecular Oncology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
| | - Rona Yaeger
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Eileen M O'Reilly
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, 10065, NY, USA
- David M. Rubenstein Center for Pancreas Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
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2
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Torres-Jiménez J, Espinar JB, de Cabo HB, Berjaga MZ, Esteban-Villarrubia J, Fraile JZ, Paz-Ares L. Targeting KRAS G12C in Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer: Current Standards and Developments. Drugs 2024; 84:527-548. [PMID: 38625662 DOI: 10.1007/s40265-024-02030-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Among the most common molecular alterations detected in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) are mutations in Kristen Rat Sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS). KRAS mutant NSCLC is a heterogenous group of diseases, different from other oncogene-driven tumors in terms of biology and response to therapies. Despite efforts to develop drugs aimed at inhibiting KRAS or its signaling pathways, KRAS had remained undruggable for decades. The discovery of a small pocket in the binding switch II region of KRASG12C has revolutionized the treatment of KRASG12C-mutated NSCLC patients. Sotorasib and adagrasib, direct KRASG12C inhibitors, have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and other regulatory agencies for patients with previously treated KRASG12C-mutated NSCLC, and these advances have become practice changing. However, first-line treatment in KRASG12C-mutated NSCLC does not differ from NSCLC without actionable driver genomic alterations. Treatment with KRASG12C inhibitors is not curative and patients develop progressive disease, so understanding associated mechanisms of drug resistance is key. New KRASG12C inhibitors and several combination therapy strategies, including with immune checkpoint inhibitors, are being studied in clinical trials. The aim of this review is to explore the clinical impact of KRAS, and outline different treatment approaches, focusing on the novel treatment of KRASG12C-mutated NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Torres-Jiménez
- Medical Oncology Department, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, Avda de Córdoba s/n, 28041, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Javier Baena Espinar
- Medical Oncology Department, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, Avda de Córdoba s/n, 28041, Madrid, Spain
| | - Helena Bote de Cabo
- Medical Oncology Department, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, Avda de Córdoba s/n, 28041, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Zurera Berjaga
- Medical Oncology Department, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, Avda de Córdoba s/n, 28041, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jorge Esteban-Villarrubia
- Medical Oncology Department, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, Avda de Córdoba s/n, 28041, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jon Zugazagoitia Fraile
- Medical Oncology Department, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, Avda de Córdoba s/n, 28041, Madrid, Spain
- Lung Cancer Group, Clinical Research Program, CNIO (Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas) and Instituto de Investigación i+12, Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis Paz-Ares
- Medical Oncology Department, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, Avda de Córdoba s/n, 28041, Madrid, Spain
- Lung Cancer Group, Clinical Research Program, CNIO (Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas) and Instituto de Investigación i+12, Madrid, Spain
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3
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Patel A, Gulhati P. Molecular Landscape and Therapeutic Strategies against Colorectal Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:1551. [PMID: 38672633 PMCID: PMC11049251 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16081551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. Although the overall incidence of CRC is decreasing, the incidence of young-onset CRC, characterized by a diagnosis of CRC before age 50, is increasing. Outcomes for CRC patients are improving, partly due to comprehensive molecular characterization of tumors and novel therapeutic strategies. Advances in genomic and transcriptomic analyses using blood- and tumor-tissue-based sequencing have facilitated identification of distinct tumor subtypes harboring unique biological characteristics and therapeutic vulnerabilities. These insights have led to the development and incorporation of targeted therapies and immunotherapy in CRC treatment. In this review, we discuss the molecular landscape and key oncogenes/tumor suppressors contributing to CRC tumorigenesis, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance. We also discuss personalized therapeutic strategies for subsets of CRC patients and provide an overview of evolving novel treatments being evaluated in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aakash Patel
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| | - Pat Gulhati
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
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Chen Y, Liu QP, Xie H, Ding J. From bench to bedside: current development and emerging trend of KRAS-targeted therapy. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2024; 45:686-703. [PMID: 38049578 PMCID: PMC10943119 DOI: 10.1038/s41401-023-01194-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Kirsten rat sarcoma 2 viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) is the most frequently mutated oncogene in human cancers with mutations predominantly occurring in codon 12. These mutations disrupt the normal function of KRAS by interfering with GTP hydrolysis and nucleotide exchange activity, making it prone to the GTP-bound active state, thus leading to sustained activation of downstream pathways. Despite decades of research, there has been no progress in the KRAS drug discovery until the groundbreaking discovery of covalently targeting the KRASG12C mutation in 2013, which led to revolutionary changes in KRAS-targeted therapy. So far, two small molecule inhibitors sotorasib and adagrasib targeting KRASG12C have received accelerated approval for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) harboring KRASG12C mutations. In recent years, rapid progress has been achieved in the KRAS-targeted therapy field, especially the exploration of KRASG12C covalent inhibitors in other KRASG12C-positive malignancies, novel KRAS inhibitors beyond KRASG12C mutation or pan-KRAS inhibitors, and approaches to indirectly targeting KRAS. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the molecular and mutational characteristics of KRAS and summarize the development and current status of covalent inhibitors targeting the KRASG12C mutation. We also discuss emerging promising KRAS-targeted therapeutic strategies, with a focus on mutation-specific and direct pan-KRAS inhibitors and indirect KRAS inhibitors through targeting the RAS activation-associated proteins Src homology-2 domain-containing phosphatase 2 (SHP2) and son of sevenless homolog 1 (SOS1), and shed light on current challenges and opportunities for drug discovery in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Chen
- Division of Antitumor Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Qiu-Pei Liu
- Division of Antitumor Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
- Department of Chemical and Environment Engineering, Science and Engineering Building, The University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo, 315100, China
| | - Hua Xie
- Division of Antitumor Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
- Zhongshan Institute for Drug Discovery, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan, 528400, China.
| | - Jian Ding
- Division of Antitumor Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
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5
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Rekowska AK, Rola P, Kwiatkowska A, Wójcik-Superczyńska M, Gil M, Krawczyk P, Milanowski J. Abnormalities in the KRAS Gene and Treatment Options for NSCLC Patients with the G12C Mutation in This Gene-A Literature Review and Single-Center Experience. Biomedicines 2024; 12:325. [PMID: 38397927 PMCID: PMC10886466 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12020325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2024] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/27/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the KRAS gene are among the most common mutations observed in cancer cells, but they have only recently become an achievable goal for targeted therapies. Two KRAS inhibitors, sotorasib and adagrasib, have recently been approved for the treatment of patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer with the KRAS G12C mutation, while studies on their efficacy are still ongoing. In this work, we comprehensively analyzed RAS gene mutations' molecular background, mutation testing, KRAS inhibitors' effectiveness with an emphasis on non-small cell lung cancer, the impact of KRAS mutations on immunotherapy outcomes, and drug resistance problems. We also summarized ongoing trials and analyzed emerging perspectives on targeting KRAS in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K. Rekowska
- Department of Pneumonology, Oncology and Allergology, Medical University of Lublin, 20-090 Lublin, Poland (M.W.-S.); (M.G.); (J.M.)
| | | | | | | | | | - Paweł Krawczyk
- Department of Pneumonology, Oncology and Allergology, Medical University of Lublin, 20-090 Lublin, Poland (M.W.-S.); (M.G.); (J.M.)
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Caughey BA, Strickler JH. Targeting KRAS-Mutated Gastrointestinal Malignancies with Small-Molecule Inhibitors: A New Generation of Breakthrough Therapies. Drugs 2024; 84:27-44. [PMID: 38109010 DOI: 10.1007/s40265-023-01980-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Kirsten rat sarcoma virus (KRAS) is one of the most important and frequently mutated oncogenes in cancer and the mutational prevalence is especially high in many gastrointestinal malignancies, including colorectal cancer and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. The KRAS protein is a small GTPase that functions as an "on/off" switch to activate downstream signaling, mainly through the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. KRAS was previously considered undruggable because of biochemical constraints; however, recent breakthroughs have enabled the development of small-molecule inhibitors of KRAS G12C. These drugs were initially approved in lung cancer and have now shown substantial clinical activity in KRAS G12C-mutated pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma as well as colorectal cancer when combined with anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies. Early data are encouraging for other gastrointestinal cancers as well and many other combination strategies are being investigated. Several new KRAS G12C inhibitors and novel inhibitors of other KRAS alterations have recently entered the clinic. These molecules employ a variety of innovative mechanisms and have generated intense interest. These novel drugs are especially important as KRAS G12C is rare in gastrointestinal malignancies compared with other KRAS alterations, representing potentially groundbreaking advances. Soon, the rapidly evolving landscape of novel KRAS inhibitors may substantially shift the therapeutic landscape for gastrointestinal cancers and offer meaningful survival improvements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bennett A Caughey
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.
| | - John H Strickler
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
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Cherri S, Oneda E, Zanotti L, Zaniboni A. Optimizing the first-line treatment for metastatic colorectal cancer. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1246716. [PMID: 37909027 PMCID: PMC10614157 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1246716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer represents an important oncological challenge both for its incidence, which makes it an important health problem, and for its biological complexity, which has made clinical results very difficult in terms of outcome for this category of patients. To date these diseases should not be treated as a single entity but it is necessary to distinguish colorectal cancers based on characteristics that nowadays are essential to have greater therapeutic benefits. These include the sideness of the disease, the state of microsatellites, the presence of prognostic and predictive mutations of response to treatments currently available in clinical practice, which are associated with new therapeutic targets. The greatest challenge in the future will be to circumvent the resistance mechanisms that make this disease very difficult to treat with good long-term results by studying effective combination treatments with a good toxicity profile. Once such combinations or targeted treatments are consolidated, it will be desirable to shift the best therapies to the first line treatment to make them immediately accessible to the patient. It will also be essential to refine the selection of patients who can benefit from these treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Cherri
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Fondazione Poliambulanza, Brescia, Italy
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8
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Wills C, Watts K, Maughan TS, Fisher D, Al‐Tassan NA, Houlston RS, Escott‐Price V, Cheadle JP. Germline variation in RASAL2 may predict survival in patients with RAS-activated colorectal cancer. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2023; 62:332-341. [PMID: 36790221 PMCID: PMC10805173 DOI: 10.1002/gcc.23133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Therapeutic agents that specifically target patients with RAS mutant colorectal cancer (CRC) are needed. We sought potential drug targets by relating genome-wide association study and survival data in patients with advanced CRC profiled for mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway mutations. METHODS In total, 694 patients from the clinical trials COIN and COIN-B had MAPK-activated CRCs (assigned as KRAS, NRAS, or BRAF mutant). Genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), gene, and gene-set analyses were performed to identify determinants of survival. For rs12028023 in RAS protein activator-like 2 (RASAL2), we studied its effect by MAPK pathway activation status (by comparing to 760 patients without MAPK-activated CRCs), MAPK gene mutation status, surface area of the primary tumor (as a marker of proliferation), and expression on RASAL2. RESULTS In MAGMA genome-wide analyses, RASAL2 was the most significant gene associated with survival (p = 2.0 × 10-5 ). Patients carrying the minor (A) allele in the lead SNP, rs12028023 in intron 1 of RASAL2, had a median increase in survival of 167 days as compared with patients carrying the major allele. rs12028023 was predictive for survival by MAPK-activation status (pZ-test = 2.1 × 10-3 ). Furthermore, rs12028023 improved survival in patients with RAS mutant (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.62, 95% confidence intervals [CI] = 0.5-0.8, p = 3.4 × 10-5 ) but not BRAF mutant (p = 0.87) CRCs. The rs12028023 A-allele was associated with reduced surface area of the primary tumor (Beta = -0.037, standard error [SE] = 0.017, p = 3.2 × 10-2 ) and reduced RASAL2 expression in cultured fibroblasts (p = 1.6 × 10-11 ). CONCLUSION Our data demonstrate a prognostic role for RASAL2 in patients with MAPK-activated CRCs, with potential as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Wills
- Division of Cancer and Genetics, School of MedicineCardiff UniversityCardiffUK
| | - Katie Watts
- Division of Cancer and Genetics, School of MedicineCardiff UniversityCardiffUK
| | - Timothy S. Maughan
- CRUK/MRC Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, University of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - David Fisher
- MRC Clinical Trials UnitUniversity College of LondonLondonUK
| | - Nada A. Al‐Tassan
- Department of GeneticsKing Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research CenterRiyadhSaudi Arabia
| | - Richard S. Houlston
- Division of Genetics and EpidemiologyThe Institute of Cancer ResearchLondonUK
| | - Valentina Escott‐Price
- Institute of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of MedicineCardiff UniversityCardiffUK
| | - Jeremy P. Cheadle
- Division of Cancer and Genetics, School of MedicineCardiff UniversityCardiffUK
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Guo MZ, Marrone KA, Spira A, Rosner S. Adagrasib: a novel inhibitor for KRASG12C-mutated non-small-cell lung cancer. Future Oncol 2023. [PMID: 37133216 DOI: 10.2217/fon-2022-1106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Adagrasib is a recently US FDA-approved novel KRASG12C targeted therapy with clinical efficacy in patients with advanced, pretreated KRASG12C-mutated non-small-cell lung cancer. KRYSTAL-I reported an objective response rate of 42.9% with median duration of response of 8.5 months. Treatment-related adverse events were primarily gastrointestinal and occurred in 97.4% of patients, with grade 3+ treatment-related adverse events occurring in 44.8% of patients. This review details the preclinical and clinical data for adagrasib in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer. We also outline practical clinical administration guidelines for this novel therapy, including management of toxicities. Finally, we discuss the implications of resistance mechanisms, summarize other KRASG12C inhibitors currently in development and outline future directions for adagrasib-based combination therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Z Guo
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kristen A Marrone
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Alexander Spira
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Virginia Cancer Specialists Research Institute, Fairfax, VA, USA
- US Oncology Research, The Woodlands, TX, USA
- NEXT Oncology, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Samuel Rosner
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Chan LS, Liu J, Li MSC, Li L, Tao Q, Mok TSK. Selenite as a dual apoptotic and ferroptotic agent synergizes with EGFR and KRAS inhibitors with epigenetic interference. Clin Epigenetics 2023; 15:36. [PMID: 36864513 PMCID: PMC9983273 DOI: 10.1186/s13148-023-01454-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Selenium, an essential trace element, has previously been investigated as a pro-apoptotic and DNA demethylation agent. It sensitizes the response to chemotherapy in patients who were refractory to cytotoxic agents. Meanwhile, ferroptosis is a novel approach to cancer treatment by triggering cell death and reversing drug resistance. The role of selenium in treating cancer cells harboring druggable oncogenic alterations and its underlying mechanism are largely unknown. RESULTS We treated lung adenocarcinoma cell lines-EGFR-mutant H1975 (H1975 EGFR p.L858R and p.T790M) and KRAS-mutant H358 (H358 KRAS p.G12C), with sodium selenite to examine its effect on cell apoptosis, ferroptosis, and DNA methylation, as well as its interaction with existing targeted therapy, osimertinib, and adagrasib. We observed selenite to be a dual apoptotic and ferroptotic agent on lung cancer cells, associated with the activation of p38-ATF4-DDIT3 axis in the unfolded protein response. Ferroptosis induction was more remarkable in H1975 than H358. Selenite also altered cellular DNA methylation machinery through downregulating DNMT1 and upregulating TET1, though not as a major mechanism of its activity. Low-dose selenite synergized with osimertinib in EGFR-mutant H1975, and with adagrasib in KRAS-mutant H358, with stronger synergism observed in H1975. CONCLUSION These results suggest that selenite is a potential apoptotic and ferroptotic drug candidate for the treatment of especially EGFR- and potentially KRAS-mutant lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lok Seng Chan
- Cancer Epigenetics Laboratory, Department of Clinical Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Translational Oncology, Sir YK Pao Center for Cancer and Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Room 315, Sir Yue-Kong Pao Center for Cancer, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Johnson Liu
- Cancer Epigenetics Laboratory, Department of Clinical Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Translational Oncology, Sir YK Pao Center for Cancer and Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Room 315, Sir Yue-Kong Pao Center for Cancer, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Molly S C Li
- Cancer Epigenetics Laboratory, Department of Clinical Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Translational Oncology, Sir YK Pao Center for Cancer and Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Room 315, Sir Yue-Kong Pao Center for Cancer, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Lili Li
- Cancer Epigenetics Laboratory, Department of Clinical Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Translational Oncology, Sir YK Pao Center for Cancer and Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Room 315, Sir Yue-Kong Pao Center for Cancer, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Qian Tao
- Cancer Epigenetics Laboratory, Department of Clinical Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Translational Oncology, Sir YK Pao Center for Cancer and Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Room 315, Sir Yue-Kong Pao Center for Cancer, Shatin, Hong Kong.
| | - Tony S K Mok
- Cancer Epigenetics Laboratory, Department of Clinical Oncology, State Key Laboratory of Translational Oncology, Sir YK Pao Center for Cancer and Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Room 315, Sir Yue-Kong Pao Center for Cancer, Shatin, Hong Kong
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Abstract
Adagrasib (KRAZATI™) is an orally available, potent, irreversible, small molecule inhibitor of KRAS G12C mutant isoform being developed by Mirati Therapeutics for the treatment of solid tumours harbouring KRAS G12C oncogenic driver mutation, including non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and colorectal cancer (CRC). Adagrasib covalently binds to the mutant cysteine in KRAS G12C and locks the mutant KRAS protein in its inactive state, thereby preventing downstream signalling without affecting wild-type KRAS protein. In December 2022, adagrasib received its first approval in the USA for the treatment of adults with KRAS G12C-mutated locally advanced or metastatic NSCLC (as determined by an FDA approved test) who have received ≥ 1 prior systemic therapy. It was approved under accelerated approval based on objective response rate and duration of response, and its continued approval for this indication may be contingent upon verification and description of a clinical benefit in a confirmatory trial(s). The drug is under regulatory review for NSCLC in the European Union and is in development for CRC in the US. Clinical studies of adagrasib in solid tumours, including CRC, are underway in several countries. This article summarizes the milestones in the development of adagrasib leading to this first approval for KRAS G12C-mutated locally advanced or metastatic NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sohita Dhillon
- Springer Nature, Mairangi Bay, Private Bag 65901, Auckland, 0754, New Zealand.
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12
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Integrated Decision-Making in the Treatment of Colon-Rectal Cancer: The Case of KRAS-Mutated Tumors. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:life13020395. [PMID: 36836752 PMCID: PMC9967356 DOI: 10.3390/life13020395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, precision medicine has taken an increasing place in various branches of medical oncology, including colorectal cancer. Among the potentially relevant mutations for this cancer is the KRAS mutation, initially defined as "untargetable"; today, we see the birth of new molecules that target one of the variants of the KRAS mutation, KRAS G12C, having a significant impact on the therapeutic options for other malignancies, such as metastatic lung cancer. This fundamental step forward has stimulated scientific research on other potential targets of KRAS, both indirect and direct, and combination treatments aiming to overcome the mechanisms of resistance to these drugs that decrease in efficacy in colorectal cancer. What was once a negative predictive marker of response to anti-EGFR drugs today has become a potential target for targeted treatments. In turn, the prognostic role of the mutation has become extremely interesting, making it a potentially useful element in therapeutic decision-making, not only regarding oncological treatments but also in a more complex and complete manner within a global vision of the patient, involving other figures on the multidisciplinary team, such as surgeons, radiotherapists, and interventional radiologists.
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13
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Thatikonda V, Lu H, Jurado S, Kostyrko K, Bristow CA, Bosch K, Feng N, Gao S, Gerlach D, Gmachl M, Lieb S, Jeschko A, Machado AA, Marszalek ED, Mahendra M, Jaeger PA, Sorokin A, Strauss S, Trapani F, Kopetz S, Vellano CP, Petronczki M, Kraut N, Heffernan TP, Marszalek JR, Pearson M, Waizenegger I, Hofmann MH. Combined KRAS G12C and SOS1 inhibition enhances and extends the anti-tumor response in KRAS G12C-driven cancers by addressing intrinsic and acquired resistance. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.23.525210. [PMID: 36747713 PMCID: PMC9900819 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.23.525210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Efforts to improve the anti-tumor response to KRASG12C targeted therapy have benefited from leveraging combination approaches. Here, we compare the anti-tumor response induced by the SOS1-KRAS interaction inhibitor, BI-3406, combined with a KRASG12C inhibitor (KRASG12Ci) to those induced by KRASG12Ci alone or combined with SHP2 or EGFR inhibitors. In lung cancer and colorectal cancer (CRC) models, BI-3406 plus KRASG12Ci induces an anti-tumor response stronger than that observed with KRASG12Ci alone and comparable to those by the other combinations. This enhanced anti-tumor response is associated with a stronger and extended suppression of RAS-MAPK signaling. Importantly, BI-3406 plus KRASG12Ci treatment delays the emergence of acquired adagrasib resistance in both CRC and lung cancer models and is associated with re-establishment of anti-proliferative activity in KRASG12Ci-resistant CRC models. Our findings position KRASG12C plus SOS1 inhibition therapy as a promising strategy for treating both KRASG12C-mutated tumors as well as for addressing acquired resistance to KRASG12Ci.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hengyu Lu
- Translational Research to Advance Therapeutics and Innovation in Oncology (TRACTION) Platform, Therapeutics Discovery Division, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Sabine Jurado
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kaja Kostyrko
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christopher A. Bristow
- Translational Research to Advance Therapeutics and Innovation in Oncology (TRACTION) Platform, Therapeutics Discovery Division, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Karin Bosch
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ningping Feng
- Translational Research to Advance Therapeutics and Innovation in Oncology (TRACTION) Platform, Therapeutics Discovery Division, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Sisi Gao
- Translational Research to Advance Therapeutics and Innovation in Oncology (TRACTION) Platform, Therapeutics Discovery Division, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | | | - Simone Lieb
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Annette A. Machado
- Translational Research to Advance Therapeutics and Innovation in Oncology (TRACTION) Platform, Therapeutics Discovery Division, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Ethan D. Marszalek
- Translational Research to Advance Therapeutics and Innovation in Oncology (TRACTION) Platform, Therapeutics Discovery Division, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Mikhila Mahendra
- Translational Research to Advance Therapeutics and Innovation in Oncology (TRACTION) Platform, Therapeutics Discovery Division, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | - Alexey Sorokin
- Department of Gastrointestinal Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | | | - Scott Kopetz
- Department of Gastrointestinal Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Christopher P. Vellano
- Translational Research to Advance Therapeutics and Innovation in Oncology (TRACTION) Platform, Therapeutics Discovery Division, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | - Norbert Kraut
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria
| | - Timothy P. Heffernan
- Translational Research to Advance Therapeutics and Innovation in Oncology (TRACTION) Platform, Therapeutics Discovery Division, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Joseph R. Marszalek
- Translational Research to Advance Therapeutics and Innovation in Oncology (TRACTION) Platform, Therapeutics Discovery Division, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Mark Pearson
- Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria
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Zhang SS, Lee A, Nagasaka M. CodeBreak 200: Sotorasib Has Not Broken the KRAS G12C Enigma Code. LUNG CANCER (AUCKLAND, N.Z.) 2023; 14:27-30. [PMID: 37101895 PMCID: PMC10123019 DOI: 10.2147/lctt.s403461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
Thirteen percent of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients are estimated to have the KRAS G12C mutation. Sotorasib is a novel KRAS G12C inhibitor that has shown promising results in preclinical and clinical studies, granting its conditional approval by the FDA in May 2021. The phase I clinical trial resulted in a confirmed response of 32% and progression free survival (PFS) of 6.3 months while the phase II trial resulted in a confirmed response of 37.1% and a PFS of 6.8 months. It was also shown to be tolerable with most subjects experiencing grade one or two adverse events, most commonly diarrhea and nausea. The CodeBreaK 200 phase III trial data have recently resulted and showed an improved PFS with the use of sotorasib at 5.6 months compared to that of standard docetaxel of 4.5 months in locally advanced or unresectable metastatic KRAS G12C NSCLC previously treated with at least one platinum-based chemotherapy and checkpoint inhibitor. The lower than expected PFS of sotorasib from the phase III trial opens up opportunities for other G12C inhibitors to join the field. Indeed, adagrasib, another G12C inhibitor just recently gained FDA accelerated approval in NSCLC patients based on the KRYSTAL-1 study where the response rate was 43% with a median duration of response of 8.5 months. With novel agents and combinations, the field of KRAS G12C is quickly evolving. While sotorasib was an exciting start, there is more to do to break the KRAS G12C Enigma code.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon S Zhang
- University of California Irvine School of Medicine, Orange, CA, USA
| | - Alexandria Lee
- University of California Irvine School of Medicine, Orange, CA, USA
| | - Misako Nagasaka
- University of California Irvine School of Medicine, Orange, CA, USA
- St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
- Correspondence: Misako Nagasaka, University of California Irvine School of Medicine, Orange, CA, USA, Email
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15
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Li Y, Luo Z, Wang X, Zhang S, Hei H, Qin J. Design of new drugs for medullary thyroid carcinoma. Front Oncol 2022; 12:993725. [PMID: 36544713 PMCID: PMC9760674 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.993725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) is one of the common malignant endocrine tumors, which seriously affects human health. Although surgical resection offers a potentially curative therapeutic option to some MTC patients, most patients do not benefit from it due to the difficulty to access the tumors and tumor metastasis. The survival rate of MTC patients has improved with the recent advances in the research, which has improved our understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying MTC and enabled the development and approval of novel targeted drugs. In this article, we reviewed the molecular mechanisms related to MTC progression and the principle for the design of molecular targeted drugs, and proposed some future directions for prospective studies exploring targeted drugs for MTC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqing Li
- Department of Thyroid and Neck, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Henan Cancer Hospital, Zhengzhou, China,The Medical School of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Ziyu Luo
- Department of Thyroid and Neck, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Henan Cancer Hospital, Zhengzhou, China,The Medical School of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xinxing Wang
- Department of Pain and Rehabilitation and Palliative Medicine, Henan Cancer Hospital, Zhengzhou, China,*Correspondence: Songtao Zhang, ; Hu Hei, ; Jianwu Qin, ; Xinxing Wang,
| | - Songtao Zhang
- Department of Thyroid and Neck, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Henan Cancer Hospital, Zhengzhou, China,The Medical School of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China,*Correspondence: Songtao Zhang, ; Hu Hei, ; Jianwu Qin, ; Xinxing Wang,
| | - Hu Hei
- Department of Thyroid and Neck, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Henan Cancer Hospital, Zhengzhou, China,The Medical School of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China,*Correspondence: Songtao Zhang, ; Hu Hei, ; Jianwu Qin, ; Xinxing Wang,
| | - Jianwu Qin
- Department of Thyroid and Neck, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Henan Cancer Hospital, Zhengzhou, China,The Medical School of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China,*Correspondence: Songtao Zhang, ; Hu Hei, ; Jianwu Qin, ; Xinxing Wang,
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16
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The current state of the art and future trends in RAS-targeted cancer therapies. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2022; 19:637-655. [PMID: 36028717 PMCID: PMC9412785 DOI: 10.1038/s41571-022-00671-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 70.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Despite being the most frequently altered oncogenic protein in solid tumours, KRAS has historically been considered ‘undruggable’ owing to a lack of pharmacologically targetable pockets within the mutant isoforms. However, improvements in drug design have culminated in the development of inhibitors that are selective for mutant KRAS in its active or inactive state. Some of these inhibitors have proven efficacy in patients with KRASG12C-mutant cancers and have become practice changing. The excitement associated with these advances has been tempered by drug resistance, which limits the depth and/or duration of responses to these agents. Improvements in our understanding of RAS signalling in cancer cells and in the tumour microenvironment suggest the potential for several novel combination therapies, which are now being explored in clinical trials. Herein, we provide an overview of the RAS pathway and review the development and current status of therapeutic strategies for targeting oncogenic RAS, as well as their potential to improve outcomes in patients with RAS-mutant malignancies. We then discuss challenges presented by resistance mechanisms and strategies by which they could potentially be overcome. The RAS oncogenes are among the most common drivers of tumour development and progression but have historically been considered undruggable. The development of direct KRAS inhibitors has changed this paradigm, although currently clinical use of these novel therapeutics is limited to a select subset of patients, and intrinsic or acquired resistance presents an inevitable challenge to cure. Herein, the authors provide an overview of the RAS pathway in cancer and review the ongoing efforts to develop effective therapeutic strategies for RAS-mutant cancers. They also discuss the current understanding of mechanisms of resistance to direct KRAS inhibitors and strategies by which they might be overcome. Owing to intrinsic and extrinsic factors, KRAS and other RAS isoforms have until recently been impervious to targeting with small-molecule inhibitors. Inhibitors of the KRASG12C variant constitute a potential breakthrough in the treatment of many cancer types, particularly non-small-cell lung cancer, for which such an agent has been approved by the FDA. Several forms of resistance to KRAS inhibitors have been defined, including primary, adaptive and acquired resistance; these resistance mechanisms are being targeted in studies that combine KRAS inhibitors with inhibitors of horizontal or vertical signalling pathways. Mutant KRAS has important effects on the tumour microenvironment, including the immunological milieu; these effects must be considered to fully understand resistance to KRAS inhibitors and when designing novel treatment strategies.
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17
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Molecular Biology and Therapeutic Perspectives for K-Ras Mutant Non-Small Cell Lung Cancers. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14174103. [PMID: 36077640 PMCID: PMC9454753 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14174103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) the most common alterations are identified in the Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) gene, accounting for approximately 30% of cases in Caucasian patients. The majority of mutations are located in exon 2, with the c.34G > T (p.G12C) change being the most prevalent. The clinical relevance of KRAS mutations in NSCLC was not recognized until a few years ago. What is now emerging is a dual key role played by KRAS mutations in the management of NSCLC patients. First, recent data report that KRAS-mutant lung AC patients generally have poorer overall survival (OS). Second, a KRAS inhibitor specifically targeting the c.34G > T (p.G12C) variant, Sotorasib, has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and by the European Medicines Agency. Another KRAS inhibitor targeting c.34G > T (p.G12C), Adagrasib, is currently being reviewed by the FDA for accelerated approval. From the description of the biology of KRAS-mutant NSCLC, the present review will focus on the clinical aspects of KRAS mutations in NSCLC, in particular on the emerging efficacy data of Sotorasib and other KRAS inhibitors, including mechanisms of resistance. Finally, the interaction between KRAS mutations and immune checkpoint inhibitors will be discussed.
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18
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da Silva-Oliveira RJ, Gomes INF, da Silva LS, Lengert AVH, Laus AC, Melendez ME, Munari CC, Cury FDP, Longato GB, Reis RM. Efficacy of Combined Use of Everolimus and Second-Generation Pan-EGRF Inhibitors in KRAS Mutant Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cell Lines. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147774. [PMID: 35887120 PMCID: PMC9317664 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: EGFR mutations are present in approximately 15−50% of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), which are predictive of anti-EGFR therapies. At variance, NSCLC patients harboring KRAS mutations are resistant to those anti-EGFR approaches. Afatinib and allitinib are second-generation pan-EGFR drugs, yet no predictive biomarkers are known in the NSCLC context. In the present study, we evaluated the efficacy of pan-EGFR inhibitors in a panel of 15 lung cancer cell lines associated with the KRAS mutations phenotype. Methods: KRAS wild-type sensitive NCI-H292 cell line was further transfected with KRAS mutations (p.G12D and p.G12S). The pan-EGFR inhibitors’ activity and biologic effect of KRAS mutations were evaluated by cytotoxicity, MAPK phospho-protein array, colony formation, migration, invasion, and adhesion. In addition, in vivo chicken chorioallantoic membrane assay was performed in KRAS mutant cell lines. The gene expression profile was evaluated by NanoString. Lastly, everolimus and pan-EGFR combinations were performed to determine the combination index. Results: The GI50 score classified two cell lines treated with afatinib and seven treated with allitinib as high-sensitive phenotypes. All KRAS mutant cell lines demonstrated a resistant profile for both therapies (GI50 < 30%). The protein array of KRAS edited cells indicated a significant increase in AKT, CREB, HSP27, JNK, and, importantly, mTOR protein levels compared with KRAS wild-type cells. The colony formation, migration, invasion, adhesion, tumor perimeter, and mesenchymal phenotype were increased in the H292 KRAS mutated cells. Gene expression analysis showed 18 dysregulated genes associated with the focal adhesion-PI3K-Akt-mTOR-signaling correlated in KRAS mutant cell lines. Moreover, mTOR overexpression in KRAS mutant H292 cells was inhibited after everolimus exposure, and sensitivity to afatinib and allitinib was restored. Conclusions: Our results indicate that allitinib was more effective than afatinib in NSCLC cell lines. KRAS mutations increased aggressive behavior through upregulation of the focal adhesion-PI3K-Akt-mTOR-signaling in NSCLC cells. Significantly, everolimus restored sensibility and improved cytotoxicity of EGFR inhibitors in the KRAS mutant NSCLC cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato José da Silva-Oliveira
- Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, Brazil; (I.N.F.G.); (L.S.d.S.); (A.v.H.L.); (A.C.L.); (M.E.M.); (C.C.M.); (F.d.P.C.); (G.B.L.)
- Correspondence: (R.J.d.S.-O.); (R.M.R.)
| | - Izabela Natalia Faria Gomes
- Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, Brazil; (I.N.F.G.); (L.S.d.S.); (A.v.H.L.); (A.C.L.); (M.E.M.); (C.C.M.); (F.d.P.C.); (G.B.L.)
| | - Luciane Sussuchi da Silva
- Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, Brazil; (I.N.F.G.); (L.S.d.S.); (A.v.H.L.); (A.C.L.); (M.E.M.); (C.C.M.); (F.d.P.C.); (G.B.L.)
| | - André van Helvoort Lengert
- Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, Brazil; (I.N.F.G.); (L.S.d.S.); (A.v.H.L.); (A.C.L.); (M.E.M.); (C.C.M.); (F.d.P.C.); (G.B.L.)
| | - Ana Carolina Laus
- Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, Brazil; (I.N.F.G.); (L.S.d.S.); (A.v.H.L.); (A.C.L.); (M.E.M.); (C.C.M.); (F.d.P.C.); (G.B.L.)
| | - Matias Eliseo Melendez
- Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, Brazil; (I.N.F.G.); (L.S.d.S.); (A.v.H.L.); (A.C.L.); (M.E.M.); (C.C.M.); (F.d.P.C.); (G.B.L.)
| | - Carla Carolina Munari
- Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, Brazil; (I.N.F.G.); (L.S.d.S.); (A.v.H.L.); (A.C.L.); (M.E.M.); (C.C.M.); (F.d.P.C.); (G.B.L.)
| | - Fernanda de Paula Cury
- Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, Brazil; (I.N.F.G.); (L.S.d.S.); (A.v.H.L.); (A.C.L.); (M.E.M.); (C.C.M.); (F.d.P.C.); (G.B.L.)
| | - Giovanna Barbarini Longato
- Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, Brazil; (I.N.F.G.); (L.S.d.S.); (A.v.H.L.); (A.C.L.); (M.E.M.); (C.C.M.); (F.d.P.C.); (G.B.L.)
| | - Rui Manuel Reis
- Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, Brazil; (I.N.F.G.); (L.S.d.S.); (A.v.H.L.); (A.C.L.); (M.E.M.); (C.C.M.); (F.d.P.C.); (G.B.L.)
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS) Medical School, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B’s-PT Government Associate Laboratory, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- Correspondence: (R.J.d.S.-O.); (R.M.R.)
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19
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Du P, Xuan L, An Z, Zhang Y. Development and validation of a robust and sensitive HPLC-MS/MS method for the quantitation of MRTX849 in plasma and its application in pharmacokinetics. Analyst 2022; 147:1175-1180. [PMID: 35195627 DOI: 10.1039/d1an01928g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
MRTX849 is a novel, highly selective, targeted inhibitor of KRAS (G12C), which significantly improves the objective response rate in patients with advanced solid tumors. However, neither an analytical HPLC-MS/MS assay nor pharmacokinetics has been reported for MRTX849 in plasma. In the present study, chromatography was accomplished on a reversed phase C18 column (50 × 2.1 mm, 3.5 μm). The limit of detection of MRTX849 was 0.02 ng mL-1 at S/N ≥ 3. Only 20 μL of plasma was utilized for accurate quantitation. The optimized analytical assay was fully validated and verified in accordance with guidelines. The calibration curve for MRTX849 was linear with a correlation coefficient >0.99 in the range of 0.05-200 ng mL-1. The intra- and inter-day accuracy and precision were all within ±10%. The matrix effect and recovery were consistent and acceptable under several quality control concentrations. This HPLC-MS/MS method was successfully applied for a pharmacokinetic study of MRTX849 at a dose of 15 mg kg-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Du
- Department of Pharmacy/Research Ward, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
| | - Lingling Xuan
- Department of Pharmacy/Research Ward, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
| | - Zhuoling An
- Department of Pharmacy/Research Ward, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
| | - Yuhui Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy/Research Ward, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
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20
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Désage AL, Léonce C, Swalduz A, Ortiz-Cuaran S. Targeting KRAS Mutant in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: Novel Insights Into Therapeutic Strategies. Front Oncol 2022; 12:796832. [PMID: 35251972 PMCID: PMC8889932 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.796832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Although KRAS-activating mutations represent the most common oncogenic driver in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), various attempts to inhibit KRAS failed in the past decade. KRAS mutations are associated with a poor prognosis and a poor response to standard therapeutic regimen. The recent development of new therapeutic agents (i.e., adagrasib, sotorasib) that target specifically KRAS G12C in its GDP-bound state has evidenced an unprecedented success in the treatment of this subgroup of patients. Despite providing pre-clinical and clinical efficacy, several mechanisms of acquired resistance to KRAS G12C inhibitors have been reported. In this setting, combined therapeutic strategies including inhibition of either SHP2, SOS1 or downstream effectors of KRAS G12C seem particularly interesting to overcome acquired resistance. In this review, we will discuss the novel therapeutic strategies targeting KRAS G12C and promising approaches of combined therapy to overcome acquired resistance to KRAS G12C inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Laure Désage
- Univ Lyon, Claude Bernard Lyon 1 University, INSERM 1052, CNRS 5286, Centre Léon Bérard, Cancer Research Center of Lyon, Lyon, France.,Department of Pulmonology and Thoracic Oncology, North Hospital, University Hospital of Saint-Etienne, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Camille Léonce
- Univ Lyon, Claude Bernard Lyon 1 University, INSERM 1052, CNRS 5286, Centre Léon Bérard, Cancer Research Center of Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Aurélie Swalduz
- Univ Lyon, Claude Bernard Lyon 1 University, INSERM 1052, CNRS 5286, Centre Léon Bérard, Cancer Research Center of Lyon, Lyon, France.,Department of Medical Oncology, Centre Léon Bérard, Lyon, France
| | - Sandra Ortiz-Cuaran
- Univ Lyon, Claude Bernard Lyon 1 University, INSERM 1052, CNRS 5286, Centre Léon Bérard, Cancer Research Center of Lyon, Lyon, France
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21
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Brady DC, Hmeljak J, Dar AC. Understanding and drugging RAS: 40 years to break the tip of the iceberg. Dis Model Mech 2022; 15:274631. [PMID: 35244677 PMCID: PMC8905715 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.049519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Several cancers and rare genetic diseases are caused by dysregulation in the RAS signaling pathway. RAS proteins serve as molecular switches that regulate pathways involved in cellular growth, differentiation and survival. These pathways have been an intense area of investigation for four decades, since the initial identification of somatic RAS mutations linked to human cancers. In the past few years, inhibitors against several RAS effectors, as well as direct inhibitors of the K-RAS mutant G12C, have been developed. This Special Issue in DMM includes original Research articles on RAS-driven cancers and RASopathies. The articles provide insights into mechanisms and biomarkers, and evaluate therapeutic targets. Several articles also present new disease models, whereas others describe technologies or approaches to evaluate the function of RAS in vivo. The collection also includes a series of Review articles on RAS biology and translational aspects of defining and treating RAS-driven diseases. In this Editorial, we summarize this collection and discuss the potential impact of the articles within this evolving area of research. We also identify areas of growth and possible future developments. Summary: This Editorial introduces DMM’s new Special Issue on the RAS pathway. The Guest Editors reflect on the impact of the featured articles on the landscape of the RAS field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donita C Brady
- Department of Cancer Biology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.,Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Julija Hmeljak
- The Company of Biologists, Bidder Building, Station Road, Histon, Cambridge CB24 9LF, UK
| | - Arvin C Dar
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Tisch Cancer Institute, Center for Therapeutic Discovery, Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029-5674, USA
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22
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Ning W, Yang Z, Kocher GJ, Dorn P, Peng RW. A Breakthrough Brought about by Targeting KRASG12C: Nonconformity Is Punished. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14020390. [PMID: 35053550 PMCID: PMC8774282 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14020390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary KRAS is the most common oncogene in human cancers and has long been considered ‘‘undruggable’’—that is, until recently, when covalent inhibitors that selectively target KRASG12C substitution were developed. The satisfactory results of multicenter clinical trials has led to the recent approval of therapy with KRASG12C inhibitors. Although KRASG12C allele-specific drugs have greatly improved the clinical outlook for patients with KRASG12C tumors, particularly lung adenocarcinomas, in which the KRASG12C mutant is most prevalent compared with other KRAS mutations, inevitable challenges, such as intrinsic and acquired drug resistance, must be overcome to maximize the efficacy of KRASG12C inhibitor therapy. Recent studies have shown that compensatory signaling pathways, such as the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, and epigenetic reprogramming, e.g., epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), are common mechanisms that mediate intrinsic resistance to KRASG12C inhibitors, whereas acquired resistance and ensuing recurrent disease can arise when cancer cells acquire secondary mutations in the KRAS protein that impair the covalent binding of KRASG12C inhibitors. The identification and targeting of KRASG12C inhibitor resistance mechanisms holds promise for novel strategies to effectively treat patients with KRASG12C-mutant cancers. Abstract KRAS is the most frequently mutated oncogene in lung carcinomas, accounting for 25% of total incidence, with half of them being KRASG12C mutations. In past decades, KRAS enjoyed the notorious reputation of being untargetable—that is, until the advent of G12C inhibitors, which put an end to this legend by covalently targeting the G12C (glycine to cysteine) substitution in the switch-II pocket of the protein, inhibiting the affinity of the mutant KRAS with GTP and subsequently the downstream signaling pathways, such as Raf/MEK/ERK. KRASG12C-selective inhibitors, e.g., the FDA-approved AMG510 and MRTX849, have demonstrated potent clinical efficacy and selectivity in patients with KRASG12C-driven cancers only, which spares other driver KRAS mutations (e.g., G12D/V/S, G13D, and Q61H) and has ushered in an unprecedented breakthrough in the field in recent decades. However, accumulating evidence from preclinical and clinical studies has shown that G12C-targeted therapeutics as single agents are inevitably thwarted by drug resistance, a persistent problem associated with targeted therapies. A promising strategy to optimize G12C inhibitor therapy is combination treatments with other therapeutic agents, the identification of which is empowered by the insightful appreciation of compensatory signaling pathways or evasive mechanisms, such as those that attenuate immune responses. Here, we review recent advances in targeting KRASG12C and discuss the challenges of KRASG12C inhibitor therapy, as well as future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjuan Ning
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland; (W.N.); (Z.Y.); (G.J.K.); (P.D.)
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Zhang Yang
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland; (W.N.); (Z.Y.); (G.J.K.); (P.D.)
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Gregor J. Kocher
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland; (W.N.); (Z.Y.); (G.J.K.); (P.D.)
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Dorn
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland; (W.N.); (Z.Y.); (G.J.K.); (P.D.)
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ren-Wang Peng
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland; (W.N.); (Z.Y.); (G.J.K.); (P.D.)
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: + 41-(0)31-684-0462
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23
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Li Y, Hu L, Xu C. Kirsten rat sarcoma inhibitors in clinical development against nonsmall cell lung cancer. Curr Opin Oncol 2022; 34:66-76. [PMID: 34690284 DOI: 10.1097/cco.0000000000000808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The unique structure made Kirsten rat sarcoma (KRAS) 'undruggable' for quite an extended period. The functional mechanism of this small protein is well illustrated. However, there is no precision medicine for nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients burden with KRAS mutation. The attempts made by scientists to make challenge history against KRAS mutation and their druggable targets are worth elucidating. RECENT FINDINGS The appearance of orphan drug AMG510 in the market specifically targeting KRASG12C is a tremendous breakthrough. Several KRAS inhibitors are under development now. More studies focus on combo treatment of KRAS inhibition and immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Recent preclinical and clinical investigations have been reported that NSCLC patients with KRAS mutation can benefit from ICIs. SUMMARY The current review elucidates the development of KRAS inhibitors from basic research to clinical precision medicines. We retrospectively analyze the development of KRAS mutation targeting drugs and discuss the investigations for future development of KRAS inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunchang Li
- Integrative Cancer Center and Cancer Clinical Research Center, Sichuan Cancer Hospital and Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
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24
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Fusco MJ, Knepper TC, Balliu J, Del Cueto A, Laborde JM, Hooda SM, Brohl AS, Bui MM, Hicks JK. OUP accepted manuscript. Oncologist 2022; 27:e9-e17. [PMID: 35305098 PMCID: PMC8842368 DOI: 10.1093/oncolo/oyab014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cancer of unknown primary (CUP) comprises a heterogeneous collection of malignancies that are typically associated with a poor prognosis and a lack of effective treatment options. We retrospectively evaluated the clinical utility of targeted next-generation sequencing (NGS) among CUP patients to assist with diagnosis and identify opportunities for molecularly guided therapy. Patients and Methods Patients with a CUP at Moffitt Cancer Center who underwent NGS between January 1, 2014 and December 31, 2019, were eligible for study inclusion. Next-generation sequencing results were assessed to determine the frequency of clinically actionable molecular alterations, and chart reviews were performed to ascertain the number of patients receiving molecularly guided therapy. Results Ninety-five CUP patients were identified for analysis. Next-generation sequencing testing identified options for molecularly guided therapy for 55% (n = 52) of patients. Among patients with molecularly guided therapy options, 33% (n = 17) were prescribed a molecularly guided therapy. The median overall survival for those receiving molecularly guided therapy was 23.6 months. Among the evaluable patients, the median duration of treatment for CUP patients (n = 7) receiving molecular-guided therapy as a first-line therapy was 39 weeks. The median duration of treatment for CUP patients (n = 8) treated with molecularly guided therapy in the second- or later-line setting was 13 weeks. Next-generation sequencing results were found to be suggestive of a likely primary tumor type for 15% (n = 14) of patients. Conclusion Next-generation sequencing results enabled the identification of treatment options in a majority of patients and assisted with the identification of a likely primary tumor type in a clinically meaningful subset of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Fusco
- Department of Individualized Cancer Management, Section for Precision Oncology, Moffitt Comprehensive Cancer Center, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Todd C Knepper
- Department of Individualized Cancer Management, Section for Precision Oncology, Moffitt Comprehensive Cancer Center, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Juliana Balliu
- Department of Individualized Cancer Management, Section for Precision Oncology, Moffitt Comprehensive Cancer Center, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Alex Del Cueto
- Department of Individualized Cancer Management, Section for Precision Oncology, Moffitt Comprehensive Cancer Center, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Jose M Laborde
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Moffitt Comprehensive Cancer Center, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Sharjeel M Hooda
- Department of Satellite and Community Oncology, Moffitt Comprehensive Cancer Center, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Andrew S Brohl
- Sarcoma Department, Moffitt Comprehensive Cancer Center, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Marilyn M Bui
- Department of Pathology, Moffitt Comprehensive Cancer Center, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - J Kevin Hicks
- Department of Individualized Cancer Management, Section for Precision Oncology, Moffitt Comprehensive Cancer Center, Tampa, FL, USA
- Corresponding author: J. Kevin Hicks, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, MRC-CANCONT, Tampa, FL 33612, USA. Tel: +1 813 745 4673;
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25
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Krishnan T, Roberts-Thomson R, Broadbridge V, Price T. Targeting Mutated KRAS Genes to Treat Solid Tumours. Mol Diagn Ther 2021; 26:39-49. [PMID: 34914038 DOI: 10.1007/s40291-021-00564-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Kirsten rat sarcoma (KRAS) is one of the most frequently mutated oncogenes in solid tumours. It encodes an important signalling pathway that drives cellular proliferation and growth. It is frequently mutated in aggressive advanced solid tumours, particularly colorectal, lung and pancreatic cancer. Since the first mutated KRAS was discovered in the 1980s, decades of research to develop targeted inhibitors of mutant KRAS have fallen short of the task, until recently. Multiple agents are now in clinical trials, including specific mutant KRAS inhibitors, pan-KRAS inhibitors, therapeutic vaccines and other targeted inhibitors. Mutant-specific KRAS G12C inhibitors are the most advanced, with two inhibitors, adagrasib and sotorasib, achieving approval in 2021 for the second-line treatment of patients with KRAS G12C mutant lung cancer. In this review, we summarise the importance of mutant KRAS in solid tumours, prior attempts at inhibiting mutant KRAS, and the current promising targeted agents being investigated in clinical trials, along with future challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tharani Krishnan
- Medical Oncology Department, Calvary North Adelaide Hospital, North Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Rachel Roberts-Thomson
- Medical Oncology Department, Calvary North Adelaide Hospital, North Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Medical Oncology Department, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville South, SA, Australia
| | - Vy Broadbridge
- Medical Oncology Department, Calvary North Adelaide Hospital, North Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Medical Oncology Department, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville South, SA, Australia
| | - Timothy Price
- Medical Oncology Department, Calvary North Adelaide Hospital, North Adelaide, SA, Australia. .,Medical Oncology Department, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville South, SA, Australia.
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26
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Rahman S, Garrel S, Gerber M, Maitra R, Goel S. Therapeutic Targets of KRAS in Colorectal Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13246233. [PMID: 34944853 PMCID: PMC8699097 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13246233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Colorectal cancer is among the most common cancers in the United States. The advancement in treatment and early diagnosis have enabled a reduction in mortality from the disease among the patients with early and localized disease; however, the survival continues to be dismal in the metastatic colorectal cancers. Understanding the biological and genetic factors is crucial is making the therapeutic strategy and improving survival outcomes. One of such critical steps is the understanding of the mechanism and development of therapeutic targets against metastatic colorectal cancers bearing the KRAS mutation. Abstract Patients with metastatic colorectal cancer have a 5-year overall survival of less than 10%. Approximately 45% of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer harbor KRAS mutations. These mutations not only carry a predictive role for the absence of response to anti-EGFR therapy, but also have a negative prognostic impact on the overall survival. There is a growing unmet need for a personalized therapy approach for patients with KRAS-mutant colorectal cancer. In this article, we focus on the therapeutic strategies targeting KRAS- mutant CRC, while reviewing and elaborating on the discovery and physiology of KRAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shafia Rahman
- Department of Medical Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center/Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1695 Eastchester Road Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA; (S.R.); (R.M.)
| | - Shimon Garrel
- Department of Biology, Lander College For Men, 75-31 150th Street, Flushing, New York, NY 11367, USA;
| | - Michael Gerber
- Department of Biology, Yeshiva University, 500 West 185th Street, New York, NY 10033, USA;
| | - Radhashree Maitra
- Department of Medical Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center/Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1695 Eastchester Road Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA; (S.R.); (R.M.)
- Department of Biology, Yeshiva University, 500 West 185th Street, New York, NY 10033, USA;
| | - Sanjay Goel
- Department of Medical Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center/Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1695 Eastchester Road Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA; (S.R.); (R.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-7184304136
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27
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Pathak N, Chitikela S, Malik PS. Recent advances in lung cancer genomics: Application in targeted therapy. ADVANCES IN GENETICS 2021; 108:201-275. [PMID: 34844713 DOI: 10.1016/bs.adgen.2021.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Genomic characterization of lung cancer has not only improved our understanding of disease biology and carcinogenesis but also revealed several therapeutic opportunities. Targeting tumor dependencies on specific genomic alterations (oncogene addiction) has accelerated the therapeutic developments and significantly improved the outcomes even in advanced stage of disease. Identification of genomic alterations predicting response to specific targeted treatment is the key to success for this "personalized treatment" approach. Availability of multiple choices of therapeutic options for specific genomic alterations highlight the importance of optimum sequencing of drugs. Multiplex gene testing has become mandatory in view of constantly increasing number of therapeutic targets and effective treatment options. Influence of genomic characteristics on response to immunotherapy further makes comprehensive genomic profiling necessary before therapeutic decision making. A comprehensive elucidation of resistance mechanisms and directed treatments have made the continuum of care possible and transformed this deadly disease into a chronic condition. Liquid biopsy-based approach has made the dynamic monitoring of disease possible and enabled treatment optimizations accordingly. Current lung cancer management is the perfect example of "precision-medicine" in clinical oncology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Pathak
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dr. B.R.A.I.R.C.H., All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Sindhura Chitikela
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dr. B.R.A.I.R.C.H., All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Prabhat Singh Malik
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dr. B.R.A.I.R.C.H., All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India.
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28
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Palma G, Khurshid F, Lu K, Woodward B, Husain H. Selective KRAS G12C inhibitors in non-small cell lung cancer: chemistry, concurrent pathway alterations, and clinical outcomes. NPJ Precis Oncol 2021; 5:98. [PMID: 34845311 PMCID: PMC8630042 DOI: 10.1038/s41698-021-00237-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancers harboring mutations in the Kirsten rat sarcoma homolog (KRAS) gene have been associated with poor prognosis and lack of targeted therapies. KRAS mutations occur in approximately one in four patients diagnosed with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) with KRAS G12C mutations harbored at approximately 11-16%. Research into KRAS-driven tumors and analytical chemistry have borne a new class of selective small molecules against the KRAS G12C isoform. Phase II data for sotorasib (AMG510) has demonstrated a 37.1% overall response rate (ORR). Adagrasib (MRTX849) has demonstrated a 45% ORR in an early study. While single agent efficacy has been seen, initial data suggest combination approaches are an opportunity to improve outcomes. Here, we present perspectives on the initial progress in targeting KRAS G12C, examine co-mutations evident in KRAS G12C NSCLC, and comment on potential future combinatorial approaches including SHP2, SOS1, MEK, EGFR, mTOR, CDK, and checkpoint blockade which are currently being evaluated in clinical trials. As of May 28, 2021, sotorasib has achieved US FDA approval for patients with KRAS G12C mutant lung cancer after one line of a prior therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Palma
- grid.266100.30000 0001 2107 4242University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Faisal Khurshid
- grid.266100.30000 0001 2107 4242University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Kevin Lu
- grid.266100.30000 0001 2107 4242University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Brian Woodward
- grid.266100.30000 0001 2107 4242University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Hatim Husain
- University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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29
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Prognostic Differences of RAS Mutations: Results from the South Australian Metastatic Colorectal Registry. Target Oncol 2021; 17:35-41. [PMID: 34822070 DOI: 10.1007/s11523-021-00856-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Effective targeting of RAS mutations has proven elusive until recently. Novel agents directly targeting KRAS G12C have shown promise in early-phase clinical trials that included patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. Prior reports have suggested that G12C mutation may be predictive of poor outcome. OBJECTIVE Assessment of the specific characteristics and prognostic implications of individual RAS mutation subtypes in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. PATIENTS AND METHODS Retrospective review of individual RAS mutation types from the South Australian Metastatic Colorectal Registry between 2006 and 2020. RESULTS Of the 5165 patients entered onto the registry, 2305 (45%) had RAS mutation results available. 772 (33%) had a RAS mutation. The nature of the RAS mutation was available in 668 (87% of those with RAS mutation). Rare mutations (outside codons 12 and 13) made up 12.6% of the total. There were numerical differences in survival between the specific RAS mutation subgroups, with the longest median overall survival (30 months) observed in those with G12S mutations. However, there was no statistical difference in survival when comparing the various RAS mutations, including the comparison of G12C to G12S (p = 0.38). Patients with cancer harbouring rare RAS mutations had a median survival of 30 months. CONCLUSIONS Whilst the G12S mutation was associated with the longest survival numerically, the observed survival for patients with the most common RAS mutations (G12C, G12V, G12A, G12D and G13D) did not significantly differ.
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