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Ishak ND, Shaw T, Li ST, Yuen J, Goh HX, Chua ZY, Suresh P, Que FVF, Zhang Z, Chiang J, Ngeow J. Cancer patients' experience of receiving variant of uncertain significance results: An Asian perspective. J Genet Couns 2023. [PMID: 37864575 DOI: 10.1002/jgc4.1813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
Abstract
Due to a lack of ancestry-matched, functional, and segregation data, Asians have a higher rate of receiving a variant of uncertain significance (VUS) result following panel testing. Managing VUS results presents challenges, as it often leads to increased anxiety and distress among cancer patients undergoing genetic testing. This exploratory study aims to investigate the experience of Asian cancer patients upon receiving a VUS result. A qualitative, semi-structured interview study was conducted, involving cancer patients who had received a VUS result through the Cancer Genetics Service of the National Cancer Centre Singapore. Twenty participants were interviewed, and their responses were transcribed and analyzed using thematic analysis to identify key themes. Thematic analysis revealed five major themes: (1) VUS results are interpreted as uncertain outcomes; (2) a VUS result provides relief and prompts positive behavioral adjustments; (3) patients employ fatalism and religion as coping mechanisms to navigate uncertainty; (4) genetic counselors, family, and the community offer reassurance and support; (5) patients value updates on variant classifications for future management. While this novel study provides unique insights into the perspectives of Asian patients who receive VUS results, it also highlights patients' effective management of VUS results and uncertainty, which has implications for improving counseling practices in Asia. Emphasis must be placed on accurate interpretation and clear communication of VUS results to dispel the possibility of misconceptions, misdiagnosis, and mismanagement in cancer care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Diana Ishak
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Genetics Service, National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Tarryn Shaw
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Genetics Service, National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Shao-Tzu Li
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Genetics Service, National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jeanette Yuen
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Genetics Service, National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hui Xuan Goh
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Genetics Service, National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Zi Yang Chua
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Genetics Service, National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Priyadharshini Suresh
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Genetics Service, National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Frances Victoria F Que
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Genetics Service, National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Zewen Zhang
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Genetics Service, National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jianbang Chiang
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Genetics Service, National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Joanne Ngeow
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Genetics Service, National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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Park JS, Shin S, Lee YJ, Lee ST, Nam EJ, Han JW, Lee SH, Kim TI, Park HS. Implication and Influence of Multigene Panel Testing with Genetic Counseling in Korean Patients with BRCA1/2 Mutation-Negative Breast Cancer. Cancer Res Treat 2022; 54:1099-1110. [PMID: 34793666 PMCID: PMC9582472 DOI: 10.4143/crt.2021.978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of the study was to evaluate the clinical implication of multigene panel testing of beyond BRCA genes in Korean patients with BRCA1/2 mutation-negative breast cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS Between 2016 and 2019, a total of 700 BRCA1/2 mutation-negative breast cancer patients received comprehensive multigene panel testing and genetic counseling. Among them, 347 patients completed a questionnaire about cancer worry, genetic knowledge, and preference for the method of genetic tests during pre- and post-genetic test counseling. The frequency of pathogenic and likely pathogenic variants (PV/LPV) were analyzed. RESULTS At least one PV/LPV of 26 genes was found in 76 out of 700 patients (10.9 %). The rate for PV/LPV was 3.4% for high-risk genes (17 PALB2, 6 TP53, and 1 PTEN). PV/LPVs of clinical actionable genes for breast cancer management, high-risk genes and other moderate-risk genes such as ATM, BARD1, BRIP, CHEK2, NF1, and RAD51D, were observed in 7.4%. Patients who completed the questionnaire showed decreased concerns about the risk of additional cancer development (average score, 4.21 to 3.94; p < 0.001), influence on mood (3.27 to 3.13; p < 0.001), influence on daily functioning (3.03 to 2.94; p=0.006); and increased knowledge about hereditary cancer syndrome (66.9 to 68.8; p=0.025) in post-test genetic counseling. High cancer worry scales (CWSs) were associated with age ≤ 40 years and the identification of PV/LPV. Low CWSs were related to the satisfaction of the counselee. CONCLUSION Comprehensive multigene panel test with genetic counseling is clinically applicable. It should be based on interpretable genetic information, consideration of potential psychological consequences, and proper preventive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Soo Park
- Hereditary Cancer Clinic, Cancer Prevention Center, Yonsei Cancer Center, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yonsei Cancer Center, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
| | - Saeam Shin
- Hereditary Cancer Clinic, Cancer Prevention Center, Yonsei Cancer Center, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
| | - Yoon Jung Lee
- Division of Nursing, Severance Hospital, Seoul,
Korea
| | - Seung-Tae Lee
- Hereditary Cancer Clinic, Cancer Prevention Center, Yonsei Cancer Center, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
| | - Eun Ji Nam
- Hereditary Cancer Clinic, Cancer Prevention Center, Yonsei Cancer Center, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Institute of Women’s Life Medical Science, Women’s Cancer Clinic, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
| | - Jung Woo Han
- Hereditary Cancer Clinic, Cancer Prevention Center, Yonsei Cancer Center, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
- Department of Pediatrics, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
| | - Sun Hwa Lee
- Division of Nursing, Severance Hospital, Seoul,
Korea
| | - Tae Il Kim
- Hereditary Cancer Clinic, Cancer Prevention Center, Yonsei Cancer Center, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
| | - Hyung Seok Park
- Hereditary Cancer Clinic, Cancer Prevention Center, Yonsei Cancer Center, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
- Department of Surgery, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,
Korea
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Clinical Significance of Germline Pathogenic Variants among 51 Cancer Predisposition Genes in an Unselected Cohort of Italian Pancreatic Cancer Patients. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14184447. [PMID: 36139606 PMCID: PMC9496779 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14184447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Multigene germline panel testing is recommended for Pancreatic Cancer (PC) patients; however, for non-BRCA1/2 genes, the clinical utility is unclear. A comprehensive multi-gene assessment in unselected Italian PC patients is missing. We evaluated the prevalence and impact of Pathogenic Variants (PV) in 51 PC susceptibility genes in a real-world series of 422 Italian PC patients unselected for Family History (FH), compared the clinical characteristics and conducted survival analyses. 17% of patients had PVs (70/422), mainly in BRCA1/2 (4.5%, all <70 y), CDKN2A (4.5%, all >50 y), ATM (2.1%). PV carriers were younger (64 vs. 67; p = 0.02) and had more frequent personal/FH of PC, melanoma and breast/ovarian cancer (all p < 0.05). The Overall Survival (OS) was longer in patients carrying PVs (HR 0.78; p = 0.090), comprising ATM carriers (HR 0.33; p = 0.054). In the oxaliplatin-treated subset, PV carriers showed better control of the disease, although this was not statistically significant (67% vs. 56%). CDKN2A, BRCA2 and ATM were the most frequently altered genes. ATM PVs were positively associated with OS in 41% of PV carriers, 60% of whom carried CDKN2A,BRCA2 or ATM PVs, had negative FH and would have been missed by traditional referral. Thus, CDKN2A and ATM should be added to BRCA1/2 testing regardless of FH.
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Metcalfe KA, Eisen A, Wright F, Poll A, Candib A, McCready D, Cil T, Armel S, Silberman Y, Brennenstuhl S, Narod SA. Impact of rapid genetic testing for BRCA1 and BRCA2 at time of breast cancer diagnosis on psychosocial functioning. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2021; 191:631-641. [PMID: 34846626 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-021-06457-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Many women are being offered rapid genetic testing (RGT) for cancer predisposition genes, at the time of breast cancer diagnosis prior to surgery. The goal of this study was to determine if psychosocial functioning was affected in women receiving RGT for BRCA1 and BRCA2 at the time of breast cancer diagnosis. METHODS Participants were women with invasive breast cancer diagnosed between 2013 and 2018, at four centres in Toronto, Canada. Eligible women were referred into the study by their surgeon at the time of diagnosis. Participants received pre-test genetic counselling and were offered RGT for BRCA1 and BRCA2. Standardized questionnaires (Impact of Event Scale and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale) were completed before genetic counselling, and follow-up questionnaires at one-week and one-year post-genetic test result disclosure (higher scores indicate higher symptoms). RESULTS 1007 women had RGT; 60 women (6.0%) were found to have a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation, 80 women (7.9%) had a VUS, and 867 (86.1%) had a negative test result. At one-week post-testing, there were no differences in distress (p = 0.32), anxiety (p = 0.14), or depression (p = 0.42) between women with a BRCA1/2 mutation and those with a negative result. At one year, there were no differences in distress (p = 0.75) or anxiety (p = 0.13) between women with a BRCA1 or BRCA/2 mutation and those with a negative result. However, women with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation had significantly lower depression scores compared to women with a negative result (p = 0.03). CONCLUSION For women who have RGT for BRCA1 and BRCA2 at the time of breast cancer diagnosis, identifying a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation does not impair psychosocial functioning in the short or long term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly A Metcalfe
- Lawrence S. Bloomberg Faculty of Nursing, University of Toronto, 155 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 1P8, Canada.
- Women's College Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| | - Andrea Eisen
- Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Aletta Poll
- Women's College Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | | | - Tulin Cil
- Princess Margaret Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Susan Armel
- Princess Margaret Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Sarah Brennenstuhl
- Lawrence S. Bloomberg Faculty of Nursing, University of Toronto, 155 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 1P8, Canada
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Kurian AW, Ward KC, Abrahamse P, Bondarenko I, Hamilton AS, Deapen D, Morrow M, Berek JS, Hofer TP, Katz SJ. Time Trends in Receipt of Germline Genetic Testing and Results for Women Diagnosed With Breast Cancer or Ovarian Cancer, 2012-2019. J Clin Oncol 2021; 39:1631-1640. [PMID: 33560870 PMCID: PMC8274804 DOI: 10.1200/jco.20.02785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Genetic testing is important for breast and ovarian cancer risk reduction and treatment, yet little is known about its evolving use. METHODS SEER records of women of age ≥ 20 years diagnosed with breast or ovarian cancer from 2013 to 2017 in California or Georgia were linked to the results of clinical germline testing through 2019. We measured testing trends, rates of variants of uncertain significance (VUS), and pathogenic variants (PVs). RESULTS One quarter (25.2%) of 187,535 patients with breast cancer and one third (34.3%) of 14,689 patients with ovarian cancer were tested; annually, testing increased by 2%, whereas the number of genes tested increased by 28%. The prevalence of test results by gene category for breast cancer cases in 2017 were BRCA1/2, PVs 5.2%, and VUS 0.8%; breast cancer-associated genes or ovarian cancer-associated genes (ATM, BARD1, BRIP1, CDH1, CHEK2, EPCAM, MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, NBN, NF1, PALB2, PMS2, PTEN, RAD51C, RAD51D, STK11, and TP53), PVs 3.7%, and VUS 12.0%; other actionable genes (APC, BMPR1A, MEN1, MUTYH, NF2, RB1, RET, SDHAF2, SDHB, SDHC, SDHD, SMAD4, TSC1, TSC2, and VHL) PVs 0.6%, and VUS 0.5%; and other genes, PVs 0.3%, and VUS 2.6%. For ovarian cancer cases in 2017, the prevalence of test results were BRCA1/2, PVs 11.0%, and VUS 0.9%; breast or ovarian genes, PVs 4.0%, and VUS 12.6%; other actionable genes, PVs 0.7%, and VUS 0.4%; and other genes, PVs 0.3%, and VUS 0.6%. VUS rates doubled over time (2013 diagnoses: 11.2%; 2017 diagnoses: 26.8%), particularly for racial or ethnic minorities (47.8% Asian and 46.0% Black, v 24.6% non-Hispanic White patients; P < .001). CONCLUSION A testing gap persists for patients with ovarian cancer (34.3% tested v nearly all recommended), whereas adding more genes widened a racial or ethnic gap in VUS results. Most PVs were in 20 breast cancer-associated genes or ovarian cancer-associated genes; testing other genes yielded mostly VUS. Quality improvement should focus on testing indicated patients rather than adding more genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison W. Kurian
- Departments of Medicine and of Epidemiology & Population Health, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
| | - Kevin C. Ward
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
| | - Paul Abrahamse
- Department of Health Management and Policy, School of Public Health, Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Irina Bondarenko
- Department of Health Management and Policy, School of Public Health, Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Ann S. Hamilton
- Department of Preventive Medicine in the Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Dennis Deapen
- Department of Preventive Medicine in the Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Monica Morrow
- Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY
| | - Jonathan S. Berek
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Women's Cancer Center, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
| | - Timothy P. Hofer
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan and Center for Clinical Management Research, Veterans Affairs Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Steven J. Katz
- Department of Health Management and Policy, School of Public Health, Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
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Culver JO, Ricker CN, Bonner J, Kidd J, Sturgeon D, Hodan R, Kingham K, Lowstuter K, Chun NM, Lebensohn AP, Rowe‐Teeter C, Levonian P, Partynski K, Lara‐Otero K, Hong C, Morales Pichardo J, Mills MA, Brown K, Lerman C, Ladabaum U, McDonnell KJ, Ford JM, Gruber SB, Kurian AW, Idos GE. Psychosocial outcomes following germline multigene panel testing in an ethnically and economically diverse cohort of patients. Cancer 2021; 127:1275-1285. [PMID: 33320347 PMCID: PMC8058169 DOI: 10.1002/cncr.33357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Little is known about the psychological outcomes of germline multigene panel testing, particularly among diverse patients and those with moderate-risk pathogenic variants (PVs). METHODS Study participants (N = 1264) were counseled and tested with a 25- or 28-gene panel and completed a 3-month postresult survey including the Multidimensional Impact of Cancer Risk Assessment (MICRA). RESULTS The mean age was 52 years, 80% were female, and 70% had cancer; 45% were non-Hispanic White, 37% were Hispanic, 10% were Asian, 3% were Black, and 5% had another race/ethnicity. Approximately 28% had a high school education or less, and 23% were non-English-speaking. The genetic test results were as follows: 7% had a high-risk PV, 6% had a moderate-risk PV, 35% had a variant of uncertain significance (VUS), and 52% were negative. Most participants (92%) had a total MICRA score ≤ 38, which corresponded to a mean response of "never," "rarely," or only "sometimes" reacting negatively to results. A multivariate analysis found that mean total MICRA scores were significantly higher (more uncertainty/distress) among high- and moderate-risk PV carriers (29.7 and 24.8, respectively) than those with a VUS or negative results (17.4 and 16.1, respectively). Having cancer or less education was associated with a significantly higher total MICRA score; race/ethnicity was not associated with the total MICRA score. High- and moderate-risk PV carriers did not differ significantly from one another in the total MICRA score, uncertainty, distress, or positive experiences. CONCLUSIONS In a diverse population undergoing genetic counseling and multigene panel testing for hereditary cancer risk, the psychological response corresponded to test results and showed low distress and uncertainty. Further studies are needed to assess patient understanding and subsequent cancer screening among patients from diverse backgrounds. LAY SUMMARY Multigene panel tests for hereditary cancer have become widespread despite concerns about adverse psychological reactions among carriers of moderate-risk pathogenic variants (mutations) and among carriers of variants of uncertain significance. This large study of an ethnically and economically diverse cohort of patients undergoing panel testing found that 92% "never," "rarely," or only "sometimes" reacted negatively to results. Somewhat higher uncertainty and distress were identified among carriers of high- and moderate-risk pathogenic variants, and lower levels were identified among those with a variant of uncertain significance or a negative result. Although the psychological response corresponded to risk, reactions to testing were favorable, regardless of results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie O. Culver
- USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCalifornia
| | - Charité N. Ricker
- USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCalifornia
| | - Joseph Bonner
- Center for Precision MedicineCity of Hope National Medical Center and Beckman Research InstituteDuarteCalifornia
| | | | - Duveen Sturgeon
- Center for Precision MedicineCity of Hope National Medical Center and Beckman Research InstituteDuarteCalifornia
| | - Rachel Hodan
- Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordCalifornia
| | - Kerry Kingham
- Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordCalifornia
| | - Katrina Lowstuter
- USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCalifornia
| | | | | | | | - Peter Levonian
- Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordCalifornia
| | - Katlyn Partynski
- USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCalifornia
| | | | - Christine Hong
- Center for Precision MedicineCity of Hope National Medical Center and Beckman Research InstituteDuarteCalifornia
| | - Jennifer Morales Pichardo
- Center for Precision MedicineCity of Hope National Medical Center and Beckman Research InstituteDuarteCalifornia
| | | | | | - Caryn Lerman
- USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCalifornia
| | - Uri Ladabaum
- Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordCalifornia
| | - Kevin J. McDonnell
- Center for Precision MedicineCity of Hope National Medical Center and Beckman Research InstituteDuarteCalifornia
| | - James M. Ford
- Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordCalifornia
| | - Stephen B. Gruber
- Center for Precision MedicineCity of Hope National Medical Center and Beckman Research InstituteDuarteCalifornia
| | | | - Gregory E. Idos
- Center for Precision MedicineCity of Hope National Medical Center and Beckman Research InstituteDuarteCalifornia
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Clift K, Macklin S, Halverson C, McCormick JB, Abu Dabrh AM, Hines S. Patients' views on variants of uncertain significance across indications. J Community Genet 2020; 11:139-145. [PMID: 31432391 PMCID: PMC7062975 DOI: 10.1007/s12687-019-00434-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
As genomic sequencing expands into more areas of patient care, an increasing number of patients learn of the variants of uncertain significance (VUSs) that they carry. Understanding the potential psychosocial consequences of the disclosure of a VUS can help inform pre- and post-test counseling discussions. Medical uncertainty in general elicits a variety of responses from patients, particularly in the growing field of medical genetics and genomics. It is important to consider patients' responses to the ambiguous nature of VUSs across different indications and situational contexts. Genetic counselors and other providers ordering genetic testing should be prepared for the possibility of their patients' misinterpretation of such results. Pre-test counseling should include a discussion of the possibility of VUSs and what it would mean for the patient's care and its potential psychosocial impacts. When a VUS is found, post-test counseling should include additional education and a discussion of the variant's implications and medical management recommendations based on the results. These discussions may help temper subjective interpretations, unrealistic views, and decisional regret.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Clift
- Mayo Clinic Center for Individualized Medicine, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
| | - Sarah Macklin
- Mayo Clinic Department of Clinical Genomics, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Colin Halverson
- Center for Bioethics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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