Erlotinib-Loaded Poly(ε-Caprolactone) Nanocapsules Improve In Vitro Cytotoxicity and Anticlonogenic Effects on Human A549 Lung Cancer Cells

Recent progress in drug delivery systems for tyrosine kinase inhibitors in the treatment of lung cancer

Lung cancer ranks as the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in both men and women worldwide. Despite the availability of diverse diagnostic and treatment strategies, it remains the leading cause of cancer-related deaths globally. The current treatment approaches for lung cancer involve the utilization of first generation (e.g., erlotinib, gefitinib) and second generation (e.g., afatinib) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). These TKIs exert their effects by inhibiting a crucial enzyme called tyrosine kinase, which is responsible for cell survival signaling. However, their clinical effectiveness is hindered by limited solubility and oral bioavailability. Nanotechnology has emerged as a significant application in modern cancer therapy. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems, including lipid, polymeric, hybrid, inorganic, dendrimer, and micellar nanoparticles, have been designed to enhance the bioavailability, stability, and retention of these drugs within the targeted lung area. Furthermore, these nanoparticle-based delivery systems offer several advantages, such as increased therapeutic efficacy and reduced side effects and toxicity. This review focuses on the recent advancements in drug delivery systems for some of the most important TKIs, shedding light on their potential in improving lung cancer treatment.

Engineering of Amphiphilic Erlotinib Analogue as Novel Nanomedicine for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Therapy

Purpose

Molecular targeted therapy is one of the most pivotal strategies in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer, yet its curative effect is severely compromised by the poor aqueous solubility, low bioavailability and inadequate tumor accumulation of targeted agents. To enhance the efficacy of targeted agents, we demonstrate a novel self-assemble amphiphilic molecule based on erlotinib as an effective nanodrug for anti-cancer treatment.

Methods

An amphiphilic molecule composed of hydrophobic erlotinib and hydrophilic biotin block was synthesized and characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) as well as high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). Then, nanoassemblies of the amphiphilic molecules are formulated by using nanoprecipitation method. Subsequently, the size, morphology, cell uptake, the anticancer activity and in vivo distribution of the newly constructed erlotinib nanodrug were systematically assessed by some methods, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light-scattering (DLS), flow cytometry, in vivo imaging system etc.

Results

We developed a novel nanoformulation of erlotinib, which possesses a high drug loading of 45%. With the features of well-defined structure and small size, the obtained nanodrug could be effectively accumulated in tumor sites and rapidly internalized by cancer cells. Finally, the erlotinib-based nanoformulation showed considerably better anticancer activity compared to free erlotinib both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, the nanodrug displayed great tolerability.

Conclusion

Combining the advantageous features of both nanotechnology and self-assemble, this novel erlotinib nanomedicine constitutes a promising therapeutic candidate for cancer treatment. This study also underlines the potential use of amphiphilic molecule for improving drug efficacy as well as reducing drug toxicity, which could become a general strategy for the preparation of nanodrugs of active agents.

Tuning the Emulsion Properties Influences the Size of Poly(Caprolactone) Particles for Drug Delivery Applications

Advances in drug delivery have been accelerated with the addition of polymeric drug carriers. Direct delivery to a target site is a promising step in developing effective drug and gene therapies to treat disease. The efficacy of these drug carriers heavily relies on cell uptake without compromising critical cellular processes that promote cell viability. Drug release from biodegradable polymers is mediated largely by polymer degradation, and therefore the rate of polymer degradation dictates the feasibility of drug delivery applications. Traditionally, poly(caprolactone) (PCL) has only been used in long-term biomedical applications because the degradation time is much slower than other polymers. However, the biocompatibility of this polymer and the potential for longer delivery windows renders it a promising polymer candidate for drug delivery. In this work, we outline sixteen emulsion solvent evaporation preparation methods for PCL nanoparticles and microparticles to develop particles between 300 nm and 1.7 μm and with zeta potentials of -1.8 mV. We further investigated particles in a size range suitable for systemic tumor delivery and inhaled aerosol delivery to determine cell biocompatibility with the polymer in lung adenocarcinoma, endometrial adenocarcinoma, and human embryonic kidney cells. We determined these particles aren't detrimental to cell viability below particle monolayer coverage atop cells and therefore these formulations hold promise for the next stage of development as sustained-release drug delivery carriers.

PEGylated Erlotinib HCl Injectable Nanoformulation for Improved Bioavailability

The present study was undertaken to synthesize PEGylated monomethoxy poly (ethylene glycol)-poly (ε-Caprolactone) (mPEG-PCL) block copolymer and formulate Erlotinib HCl-loaded mPEG-PCL nanoparticles for enhancing the bioavailability of the drug. Using the ring-opening polymerization technique, PEGylated mPEG-PCL block copolymer was synthesized, and the structure of the copolymer was characterized using FTIR, ¹H-NMR, and DSC techniques. The solvent evaporation approach was used to effectively encapsulate Erlotinib HCl within block copolymeric nanoparticles. Erlotinib HCl-loaded mPEG-PCL nanoparticles had a mean particle size of 146.5 ± 2.37 nm and a zeta potential of -27.8 ± 2.77 mV. The nanoparticles had a percent entrapment efficiency of 80.78 ± 0.09%. The in vitro drug release of Erlotinib HCl-loaded copolymeric nanoparticles showed a slow and sustained release behavior which could be maintained for up to 72 h. The Korsmeyer-Peppas fitting findings indicated that the drug release process followed a non-Fickian diffusion mechanism. The pharmacokinetic (PK) behavior of the developed nanoformulation was studied in albino Wistar rats, and the relative bioavailability of the optimized NP formulation given by intravenous route was found to be 187.33%. The PK data suggested that Erlotinib HCl-loaded mPEG-PCL copolymeric nanoparticles can dramatically alter the PK behavior of Erlotinib HCl and greatly improve the drug's bioavailability by as much as three times when compared to the oral formulation. As a result, it was established that the block copolymeric nanoparticles have promise for the effective encapsulation of Erlotinib HCL for an injectable formulation with increased bioavailability.

Scalable Production and In Vitro Efficacy of Inhaled Erlotinib Nanoemulsion for Enhanced Efficacy in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC)

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a global concern as one of the leading causes of cancer deaths. The treatment options for NSCLC are limited to systemic chemotherapy, administered either orally or intravenously, with no local chemotherapies to target NSCLC. In this study, we have prepared nanoemulsions of tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI), erlotinib, using the single step, continuous manufacturing, and easily scalable hot melt extrusion (HME) technique without additional size reduction step. The formulated nanoemulsions were optimized and evaluated for their physiochemical properties, in vitro aerosol deposition behavior, and therapeutic activity against NSCLC cell lines both in vitro and ex vivo. The optimized nanoemulsion showed suitable aerosolization characteristics for deep lung deposition. The in vitro anti-cancer activity was tested against the NSCLC A549 cell line which exhibited 2.8-fold lower IC₅₀ for erlotinib-loaded nanoemulsion, as compared to erlotinib-free solution. Furthermore, ex vivo studies using a 3D spheroid model also revealed higher efficacy of erlotinib-loaded nanoemulsion against NSCLC. Hence, inhalable nanoemulsion can be considered as a potential therapeutic approach for the local lung delivery of erlotinib to NSCLC.

Nano-encapsulation of halofuginone hydrobromide enhances anticoccidial activity against Eimeria tenella in chickens

Coccidiosis is a worldwide epidemic intestinal disease with high incidence, which causes huge economic losses. Halofuginone hydrobromide (HF) is widely applied as an effective anticoccidial drug in the poultry industry. However, its therapeutic efficacy is severely restrained due to toxic effects, poor aqueous solubility and low permeability. Nanotechnology can improve the biological effect of drugs, and thus, reduce administered doses and toxic effects. The objective of this study was to investigate the therapeutic and preventive potential of novel HF-loaded D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) polymer micelles (HTPM) for preventing coccidiosis in chickens. The HTPM were approximately spherical with a hydrodynamic diameter of 12.65 ± 0.089 nm, a zeta potential of 8.03 ± 0.242 mV, a drug loading of 14.04 ± 0.12%, and an encapsulation efficiency of 71.1 ± 4.15%. HF was encapsulated in the polymer micelles through interactions with TPGS, as characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. Cellular take up assays showed that TPGS polymer micelles could enhance drug internalization to alleviate intestinal apoptosis induced by coccidiosis and promote the necrosis of second-generation merozoites of E. tenella. Notably, clinical trials proved that 1.5 mg L^-1 HTPM had a stronger anticoccidial effect on E. tenella than that of 3 mg kg^-1 HF premix. Amplicon sequencing identified that HTPM could alleviate coccidiosis by restoring the structure of the gut microbiome. These findings indicated that the anticoccidial efficacy of HF was significantly enhanced after being encapsulated in polymer micelles, and further demonstrated the potential protective application of nano-encapsulating anticoccidial drugs as a promising approach to control coccidiosis in poultry. In summary, HTPM hold huge potential as an effective therapeutic agent for coccidiosis.

Lung cancer targeting efficiency of Silibinin loaded Poly Caprolactone /Pluronic F68 Inhalable nanoparticles: In vitro and In vivo study

Silibinin (SB) is shown to have an anticancer properties. However, its clinical therapeutic effects have been restricted due to its low water solubility and poor absorption after oral administration. The aim of this study was to develop SB-loaded PCL/Pluronic F68 nanoparticles for pulmonary delivery in the treatment of lung cancer. A modified solvent displacement process was used to make nanoparticles, which were then lyophilized to make inhalation powder, Nanoparticles were characterized with DSC, FTIR,SEM and In vitro release study. Further, a validated HPLC method was developed to investigate the Biodistribution study, pharmacokinetic parameters. Poly Caprolactone PCL / Pluronic F68 NPs showed the sustained release effect up to 48 h with an emitted (Mass median Aerodynamic diameter)MMAD and (Geometric size distribution)GSD were found to be 4.235 ±0.124 and 1.958±1.23 respectively. More specifically, the SB Loaded PCL/Pluronic F 68 NPs demonstrated long circulation and successful lung tumor-targeting potential due to their cancer-targeting capabilities. SB Loaded PCL/Pluronic F68 NPs significantly inhibited tumour growth in lung cancer-induced rats after inhalable administration. In a pharmacokinetics study, PCL/ Pluronic F68 NPs substantially improved SB bioavailability, with a more than 4-fold rise in AUC when compared to IV administration. These findings indicate that SB-loaded PCL/PluronicF68 nanoparticles may be a successful lung cancer therapy delivery system.

Toltrazuril-Loaded Polymeric Nanocapsules as a Promising Approach for the Preventive Control of Coccidiosis in Poultry

Coccidiosis is a disease caused by intracellular protozoan parasites of the genus Eimeria that affect the intestinal tract of poultry. However, strain resistance and drug residue in the carcass have drawn the attention of the productive sector. The nanotechnology can improve the biological effect of drugs, reducing of administered doses and toxic effects. Due to this, toltrazuril-load polymeric nanoparticles based on Eudragit® S100 (NCt) or poly-ε-caprolactone (LNCt) were developed to prevent coccidiosis in broilers. Nanoformulations were produced and showed homogeneous particle diameter distribution in the nanometer range (z-average and D (4.3) < 200 nm), negative zeta potential (<−8.93 mV), drug content ~100%, and encapsulation efficiency >90%. Cell viability assays using avian fibroblasts showed that LNCt presented no relevant toxicity up to 72 h. LNCt was then prophylactically administrated to chicken followed by challenge with Eimeria oocysts. The evaluation of the small intestine and cecum showed that the treatment with LNCt (3.5 mg/kg/day) in drinking water reduced the lesion scores and oocysts excretion, similar to the reference medicine containing toltrazuril (Baycox®, 7 mg/kg/day). The current study shows the potential protective use of nanoencapsulating anticoccidial drugs as a promising approach for the control of coccidiosis in poultry.

Progresses in polymeric nanoparticles for delivery of tyrosine kinase inhibitors

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), as an important class of chemotherapeutic drugs, induce apoptosis by altering the path of the cellular signal, resulting in cell death. However, some chemotherapeutic drugs have a limited therapeutic index and are usually destructive as well as unpredictable. In addition, the limitation of early diagnosis and inefficiency of some of the drugs in ordinary treatments lead to disease progression and decreases in the survival of cancer patients. For this purpose, various methods have been proposed, among them, nanomedicine has transpired as a modern approach for the treatment of multiple cancers. Over the last two decades, targeted therapy has been developed for cancer-specific cells/tissues and has rather restricted nonselective toxicities. In vivo and in vitro studies demonstrated nanoparticles (NPs), nano-scale drugs, and nano-carriers alone or in combination with other therapeutic, imaging, and theranostic agents would be applied as an effective approach targeting a diversity of malignant tissue. Therefore, using the latest advances in materials science and biomaterials, biology, it has happened that general diagnosis and treatment can be performed. In this review, we indicated the applications of theranostic nano-polymer and nano-liposome to TKIs delivery.

Poly(ε-caprolactone) grafted cashew gum nanoparticles as an epirubicin delivery system

Polysaccharide based copolymers have been the focus of several research, particularly for the development of drug delivery systems. This study reports on the preparation of nanoparticles from an amphiphilic copolymer obtained by the poly(ε-caprolactone) graft in the structure of cashew gum, via ring-opening polymerization. The synthesis of copolymers was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance. The copolymers exhibit self-organization capability in water, with critical association concentration of 42 and 50 μg mL^-1. The nanoparticle hydrodynamic diameters (212 and 202 nm) revealed a decreasing trend with increasing poly(ε-caprolactone) graft percentage. Epirubicin was used as an anticancer drug model and incorporated into the nanoparticles. The encapsulation efficiency reached 50% and 5.0% drug load. Nanoparticles showed an epirubicin controlled release profile, with maximum release of 93.0 ± 4.0% in 72 h, as well as excellent biocompatibility, according to hemolysis and cytotoxicity assays.

In vitro anti-leukemic assessment and sustained release behaviour of cytarabine loaded biodegradable polymer based nanoparticles

AIMS

The study aimed to develop, characterize, and evaluate poly (ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL) based nanoparticles for the sustained release behaviour of cytarabine and to investigate the in vitro anti-cancer influence on KG-1 leukemic cell line.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Nanoprecipitation method was used for the preparation of cytarabine loaded PCL nanoparticles. The developed nanoparticles were characterized for physicochemical properties and the anti-leukemic effect on the KG-1 cell line was evaluated.

KEY FINDINGS

A total number of five formulations were prepared with size range from 120.5 ± 1.18 to 341.5 ± 3.02, entrapment efficiency (41.31 ± 0.49 to 62.28 ± 0.39%), spherical morphology, negative zeta potentials, considerable particle size distribution, compatibility between the drug and excipients and thermal stability. X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the successful incorporation of cytarabine in PCL polymer. In vitro drug release in phosphate buffer saline (pH 7.4) showed initial burst release followed by sustained release up to 48 h. The sustained release behaviour efficiently increased the toxicity of cytarabine-loaded PCL nanoparticles to KG-1 (leukemic) and MCF-7 (breast cancer) cell lines in time dependent manner with lower IC₅₀ values than that of drug solution. The flow cytometry study revealed the better apoptotic activity of cytarabine loaded PCL nanoparticle against treated KG-1 cell line. The western blot analysis confirmed the upregulation of cleaved caspase-3 and downregulation of Bcl-2 protein.

SIGNIFICANCE

The experimental results suggest that cytarabine loaded PCL nanoparticles is an efficient carrier to prevent the dose associated toxicity while providing sustained release pattern to ensure maximum anti-cancer influence.