Dehydroepiandrosterone induces a neuroendocrine phenotype in nerve growth factor-stimulated chromaffin pheochromocytoma PC12 cells

Adrenal Mass and Hypokalaemia: The Zebra Among Horses

Pheochromocytoma rarely presents with unexplained hypokalaemia, although there are some case reports in the literature. The mechanism behind this could be the increased cellular potassium uptake promoted by beta-2-adrenoreceptor hyperactivation and insulin resistance. We present the case of a 68-year-old hypertensive female patient with a unilateral adrenal mass discovered on angio-CT and typical signs of adrenergic hyperstimulation (hypertensive crisis, headache, and sweating) associated with multiple arrhythmic episodes but with normal plasma and urinary catecholamine levels. During the work-up for hormonal hypersecretion and the cessation of anti-aldosterone medication, the patient presented resistant hypokalaemia. Due to uncorrectable hypokalaemia, we were unable to perform hormonal investigations for primary hyperaldosteronism and referred the patient for laparoscopic adrenalectomy. The histological diagnosis revealed left pheochromocytoma. Postoperatively, the patient experienced rebound hyperkalaemia. In a patient with a unilateral adrenal mass and hypokalaemia, besides primary hyperaldosteronism and adrenocorticotropic hormone-independent hypercortisolism, a possible pheochromocytoma should be ruled out as well by the clinician before surgery.

Androgens and NGF Mediate the Neurite-Outgrowth through Inactivation of RhoA

Steroid hormones and growth factors control neuritogenesis through their cognate receptors under physiological and pathological conditions. We have already shown that nerve growth factor and androgens induce neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells through a reciprocal crosstalk between the NGF receptor, TrkA and the androgen receptor. Here, we report that androgens or NGF induce neuritogenesis in PC12 cells through inactivation of RhoA. Ectopic expression of the dominant negative RhoA N19 promotes, indeed, the neurite-elongation of unchallenged and androgen- or NGF-challenged PC12 cells and the increase in the expression levels of βIII tubulin, a specific neuronal marker. Pharmacological inhibition of the Ser/Thr kinase ROCK, an RhoA effector, induces neuritogenesis in unchallenged PC12 cells, and potentiates the effect of androgens and NGF, confirming the role of RhoA/ROCK axis in the neuritogenesis induced by androgen and NGF, through the phosphorylation of Akt. These findings suggest that therapies based on new selective androgen receptor modulators and/or RhoA/ROCK inhibitors might exert beneficial effects in the treatment of neuro-disorders, neurological diseases and ageing-related processes.

Peptidergic G Protein-Coupled Receptor Regulation of Adrenal Function: Bench to Bedside and Back

An altered secretion of adrenocortical and adrenomedullary hormones plays a role in the clinical syndromes of primary aldosteronism (PA), Cushing, and pheochromocytoma. Moreover, an altered production of adrenocortical hormones and/or an abnormal release of factors by the adrenal medulla are involved in several other diseases, including high blood pressure, congestive heart failure, liver cirrhosis, nephrotic syndrome, primary reninism, renovascular hypertension, Addison disease, Bartter, Gitelman, and virilization syndromes. Understanding the regulation of adrenal function and the interactions between adrenal cortex and medulla is, therefore, the prerequisite for mechanistic understanding of these disorders. Accumulating evidence indicates that the modulation of adrenal hormone biosynthesis is a process far more complex than originally thought, as it involves several factors, each cooperating with the other. Moreover, the tight vascular and neural interconnections between the adrenal cortex and medulla underlie physiologically relevant autocrine/paracrine interactions involving several peptides. Besides playing a pathophysiological role in common adrenal diseases, these complex mechanisms could intervene also in rare diseases, such as pheochromocytoma concomitant with adrenal Cushing or with PA, and PA co-occurring with Cushing, through mechanisms that remain to be fully understood at the molecular levels. Heterodimerization of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) induced by peptide signaling is a further emerging new modulatory mechanism capable of finely tuning adrenal hormones synthesis and release. In this review we will examine current knowledge on the role of peptides that act via GPCRs in the regulation of adrenal hormone secretion with a particular focus on autocrine-paracrine signals.

Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, free testosterone, and sex hormone-binding globulin on susceptibility to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

The neuroendocrine system may affect the pathophysiology of gender differences in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study examines whether the relationships among dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), free testosterone, or sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) and ADHD presentations exhibit gender differences. A total of 113 boys and 35 girls with ADHD (all drug naïve) and 46 and 26 healthy control boys and girls, respectively, were recruited. Blood samples were obtained to measure the serum levels of DHEA-S, free testosterone, and SHBG in each child. The Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham Scale for ADHD Version IV (SNAP-IV) was used to evaluate behavioral symptoms and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) and the Conners' Continuous Performance Test (CPT) were utilized to assess neurocognitive functions. Patients with ADHD had lower DHEA-S levels than male and female healthy control subjects, and no significant differences were observed in free testosterone and SHBG levels between the patients and the controls. DHEA-S levels were negatively correlated with children's impulsivity performance in the CPT. SHBG levels were negatively correlated with ADHD behavior symptoms among boys. Free testosterone levels were not significantly correlated with either ADHD clinical symptoms or neuropsychological functions. We propose that DHEA-S serves as a potential biomarker of ADHD and is consistently involved in the pathogenesis of ADHD in both boys and girls. SHBG may be involved in behaviors associated with ADHD in boys. Additional studies with basic scientific measures are warranted to elucidate the relationship between androgen hormones and clinical presentations of ADHD.

Human fetal adrenal cells retain age-related stem- and endocrine-differentiation potential in culture

The adrenal gland is a multiendocrine organ with a steroidogenic mesenchymal cortex and an inner catecholamine-producing medulla of neuroendocrine origin. After embryonic development, this plastic organ undergoes a functional postnatal remodeling. Elucidating these complex processes is pivotal for understanding the early bases of functional endocrine disorders and tumors affecting the mature gland. We developed an in vitro human adrenal cell model derived from fetal adrenal specimens at different gestational ages, consisting of neuroendocrine and cortical components and expressing the zona and functional markers of the original fetal organ. These cortical and neuroendocrine progenitor cells retain in vitro an intrinsic gestational-age-related differentiation and functional program. In vitro these cells spontaneously form 3-dimensional structure organoids with a structure similar to the fetal gland. The organoids show morphofunctional features and adrenal steroidogenic factor, steroid acute regulatory, cytochrome-P450-17A1, dosage-sensitive, sex-reversal, adrenal hypoplasia-critical region on chromosome X protein , NOTCH1, and nephroblastoma overexpressed/cysteine-rich protein 61/connective tissue growth factor/nephroblastoma overexpressed gene-3; stem (BMI1, nestin); and chromaffin (chromogranin A, tyrosine hydroxylase) markers similar to those of the populations of origin. This in vitro human adrenal system represents a unique but preliminar model for investigating the pathophysiological processes underlying physiologic adrenal remodeling and pathologic alterations involved in organ hypo- and hyperplasia and cancer.-Poli, G., Sarchielli, E., Guasti, D., Benvenuti, S., Ballerini, L., Mazzanti, B., Armignacco, R., Cantini, G., Lulli, M., Chortis, V., Arlt, W., Romagnoli, P., Vannelli, G. B., Mannelli, M., Luconi, M. Human fetal adrenal cells retain age-related stem- and endocrine-differentiation potential in culture.

Polymorphisms of STS gene and SULT2A1 gene and neurosteroid levels in Han Chinese boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: an exploratory investigation

This study examined the relationships among polymorphisms of the STS gene and SULT2A1 gene, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfated form (DHEA-S), and characteristics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We used cheek swabs to obtain the genomic DNA of 200 ADHD male probands (mean age: 8.7 years), 192 patients’ mothers and 157 patients’ fathers. Three SNPs in the STS gene (rs6639786, rs2270112, and rs17268988) and one SNP in the SULT2A1 gene (rs182420) were genotyped. Saliva samples were collected from the ADHD patients to analyze DHEA and DHEA-S levels. The behavioral symptoms were evaluated with the Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham, and Version IV Scale for ADHD (SNAP-IV), and the neuropsychological function was assessed using the Conners’ Continuous Performance Tests (CPT). We found the C allele of rs2270112 within the STS gene to be over-transmitted in males with ADHD. Polymorphisms of rs182420 within the SULT2A1 gene were not associated with ADHD. In addition, the C allele carriers of rs2270112 demonstrated significantly higher DHEA-S levels than the G allele carriers. Levels of DHEA were positively correlated with attention as measured by the CPT. These findings support a potential role in the underlying biological pathogenesis of ADHD with regard to STS polymorphisms and neurosteroid levels.

Adrenocortical Gap Junctions and Their Functions

Adrenal cortical steroidogenesis and proliferation are thought to be modulated by gap junction-mediated direct cell-cell communication of regulatory molecules between cells. Such communication is regulated by the number of gap junction channels between contacting cells, the rate at which information flows between these channels, and the rate of channel turnover. Knowledge of the factors regulating gap junction-mediated communication and the turnover process are critical to an understanding of adrenal cortical cell functions, including development, hormonal response to adrenocorticotropin, and neoplastic dedifferentiation. Here, we review what is known about gap junctions in the adrenal gland, with particular attention to their role in adrenocortical cell steroidogenesis and proliferation. Information and insight gained from electrophysiological, molecular biological, and imaging (immunocytochemical, freeze fracture, transmission electron microscopic, and live cell) techniques will be provided.

Adrenomedullary progenitor cells: Isolation and characterization of a multi-potent progenitor cell population

The adrenal is a highly plastic organ with the ability to adjust to physiological needs by adapting hormone production but also by generating and regenerating both adrenocortical and adrenomedullary tissue. It is now apparent that many adult tissues maintain stem and progenitor cells that contribute to their maintenance and adaptation. Research from the last years has proven the existence of stem and progenitor cells also in the adult adrenal medulla throughout life. These cells maintain some neural crest properties and have the potential to differentiate to the endocrine and neural lineages. In this article, we discuss the evidence for the existence of adrenomedullary multi potent progenitor cells, their isolation and characterization, their differentiation potential as well as their clinical potential in transplantation therapies but also in pathophysiology.

Neuroprotective-neurotrophic effect of endogenous dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate during intense stress exposure

Recent reports demonstrate neurotrophic properties of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) in men at rest, as well as profound neurotrophic responses to stress in both men and women. Little is known of neuroprotective-neurotrophic effects of DHEAS during stress exposure, either in men or women. This translational study was designed to examine neuroprotective-neurotrophic effects of DHEAS throughout intense stress exposure in healthy men and women. The study took place within a stressful 12-day military survival course. Utilizing a longitudinal cross-sectional repeated measures design, One hundred sixteen healthy active-duty military personnel (80% male) were studied before, during, and 24h after the course. The dependent variable was the neurotrophin salivary nerve growth factor (sNGF). In terms of total hormone output, the effect of DHEAS on sNGF was mediated by testosterone. Unlike testosterone or cortisol, DHEAS reliably predicted sNGF at each time point, and change in DHEAS predicted change in sNGF across time points. Baseline DHEAS predicted total sNGF output across the stress trajectory. Consistent with preclinical as well as cross-sectional human research, this study demonstrates neuroprotective-neurotrophic effects of DHEAS in healthy men and women exposed to intense stress. Results are evaluated in relation to established criteria for causation.

Adrenarche and middle childhood

Middle childhood, the period from 6 to 12 years of age, is defined socially by increasing autonomy and emotional regulation, somatically by the development of anatomical structures for subsistence, and endocrinologically by adrenarche, the adrenal production of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Here I suggest that DHEA plays a key role in the coordinated development of the brain and body beginning with middle childhood, via energetic allocation. I argue that with adrenarche, increasing levels of circulating DHEA act to down-regulate the release of glucose into circulation and hence limit the supply of glucose which is needed by the brain for synaptogenesis. Furthermore, I suggest the antioxidant properties of DHEA may be important in maintaining synaptic plasticity throughout middle childhood within slow-developing areas of the cortex, including the insula, thamalus, and anterior cingulate cortex. In addition, DHEA may play a role in the development of body odor as a reliable social signal of behavioral changes associated with middle childhood.

Pancreatic β-cell Raf-1 is required for glucose tolerance, insulin secretion, and insulin 2 transcription

Regulation of glucose homeostasis by insulin depends on pancreatic β-cell growth, survival, and function. Raf-1 kinase is a major downstream target of several growth factors that promote proliferation and survival of many cell types, including the pancreatic β cells. We have previously reported that insulin protects β cells from apoptosis and promotes proliferation by activating Raf-1 signaling in cultured human islets, mouse islets, and MIN6 cells. As Raf-1 activity is critical for basal apoptosis and insulin secretion in vitro, we hypothesized that Raf-1 may play an important role in glucose homeostasis in vivo. To test this hypothesis, we utilized the Cre-loxP recombination system to obtain a pancreatic β-cell-specific ablation of Raf-1 kinase gene (RIPCre(+/+):Raf-1(flox/flox)) and a complete set of littermate controls (RIPCre(+/+):Raf-1(wt/wt)). RIPCre(+/+):Raf-1(flox/flox) mice were viable, and no effects on weight gain were observed. RIPCre(+/+):Raf-1(flox/flox) mice had increased fasting blood glucose levels and impaired glucose tolerance but normal insulin tolerance compared to littermate controls. Insulin secretion in vivo and in isolated islets was markedly impaired, but there was no apparent effect on the exocytosis machinery. However, islet insulin protein and insulin 2 mRNA, but not insulin 1 mRNA, were dramatically reduced in Raf-1-knockout mice. Analysis of insulin 2 knockout mice demonstrated that this reduction in mRNA was sufficient to impair in vivo insulin secretion. Our data further indicate that Raf-1 specifically and acutely regulates insulin 2 mRNA via negative action on Foxo1, which has been shown to selectively control the insulin 2 gene. This work provides the first direct evidence that Raf-1 signaling is essential for the regulation of basal insulin transcription and the supply of releasable insulin in vivo.

Asthma pregnancy alters postnatal development of chromaffin cells in the rat adrenal medulla

Background

Adrenal neuroendocrine plays an important role in asthma. The activity of the sympathoadrenal system could be altered by early life events. The effects of maternal asthma during pregnancy on the adrenal medulla of offspring remain unknown.

Methodology/Principal Findings

This study aims to explore the influence of maternal asthma during pregnancy on the development and function of adrenal medulla in offspring from postnatal day 3 (P3) to postnatal day 60 (P60). Asthmatic pregnant rats (AP), nerve growth factor (NGF)-treated pregnant rats (NP) and NGF antibody-treated pregnant rats (ANP) were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin (OVA); NP and ANP were treated with NGF and NGF antibody respectively. Offspring rats from the maternal group were divided into four groups: offspring from control pregnant rats (OCP), offspring from AP (OAP), offspring from NP (ONP), and offspring from ANP (OANP). The expressions of phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) protein in adrenal medulla were analyzed. The concentrations of epinephrine (EPI), corticosterone and NGF in serum were measured. Adrenal medulla chromaffin cells (AMCC) were prone to differentiate into sympathetic nerve cells in OAP and ONP. Both EPI and PNMT were decreased in OAP from P3 to P14, and then reached normal level gradually from P30 to P60, which were lower from birth to adulthood in ONP. Corticosterone concentration increased significantly in OAP and ONP.

Conclusion/Significance

Asthma pregnancy may promote AMCC to differentiate into sympathetic neurons in offspring rats and inhibit the synthesis of EPI, resulting in dysfunction of bronchial relaxation.

Effects of dehydroepiandrosterone on proliferation and differentiation of chromaffin progenitor cells

Dehydroepiandrosterone producing adrenocortical zona reticularis and the adrenal medulla are in direct contact and are highly intermingled in many species. This results in potentially strong paracrine influences of high local dehydroepiandrosterone concentrations on the adrenal medulla. Dehydroepiandrosterone has neuroprotective properties and increases neural stem cell proliferation and neurogenesis. Therefore, we aimed to establish its effects on chromaffin progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation. Previously, we successfully isolated chromaffin progenitors from bovine adrenal medulla in spherical cultures, so-called chromospheres. Seven days treatment of chromospheres with dehydroepiandrosterone at high concentrations (100 μM) hampered proliferation of chromaffin progenitors. Under differentiation conditions, dehydroepiandrosterone in the presence of retinoic acid, increased tyrosine hydroxylase and decreased dopamine-β-hydroxylase mRNA expression. In addition, there was a tendency to increase dopamine contents. Dehydroepiandrosterone/retinoic acid is therefore suggested to induce dopaminergic differentiation from chromaffin progenitor cells. Furthermore, the high dehydroepiandrosterone concentrations present in the fetal and adult adrenal may play an important role in adrenomedullary cell proliferation and differentiation.

Direct effect of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) on PC-12 cell differentiation processes

Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate is classically seen as an inactive reservoir for the production of dehydroepiandrosterone. Steroid sulfatase is the enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to dehydroepiandrosterone, which can then be further metabolized to other steroid hormones. Recent studies, however, indicate that dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate can mediate biological effects without being converted to dehydroepiandrosterone. This study aims to evaluate whether dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate itself influences the differentiation of PC-12 cells or if its desulfation to dehydroepiandrosterone is required. dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate both influence the differentiation of chromaffin PC-12 cells. Blocking steroid sulfatase activity and thereby the conversion of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to dehydroepiandrosterone by the enzyme blocker estrone sulfamate showed that the effect of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate is independent of its conversion to dehydroepiandrosterone. Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, similar to dehydroepiandrosterone, reduced nerve growth factor-induced neurite outgrowth of PC-12 cells and the expression of synaptosomal-associated membrane protein of 25 kDa, increased the expression of chromogranin A and significantly increased dopamine release of PC-12 cells. In addition, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, dehydroepiandrosterone and membrane impermeable dehydroepiandrosterone-BSA all significantly reduced NGF-induced MAPK ERK1/2 signaling after 5 min. In summary, this study provides evidence that dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, independent of its conversion to dehydroepiandrosterone, directs PC-12 cells' differentiation to a neuroendocrine direction. Furthermore, employing membrane-impermeable dehydroepiandrosterone-BSA indicates the involvement of plasma-membrane bound receptors.

Agonist of growth hormone-releasing hormone as a potential effector for survival and proliferation of pancreatic islets

Therapeutic strategies for transplantation of pancreatic islet cells are urgently needed to expand beta-cell mass by stimulating islet cell proliferation and/or prolonging islet cell survival. Control of the islets by different growth factors provides a potential venue for augmenting beta-cell mass. In the present study, we show the expression of the biologically active splice variant-1 (SV-1) of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) receptor in rat insulinoma (INS-1) cells as well as in rat and human pancreatic islets. In studies in vitro of INS-1 cells, the GHRH agonist JI-36 caused a significant increase in cell proliferation and a reduction of cell apoptosis. JI-36 increased islet size and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in isolated rat islets after 48-72 h. At the ultrastructural level, INS-1 cells treated with agonist JI-36 revealed a metabolic active stimulation state with increased cytoplasm. Coincubation with the GHRH antagonist MIA-602 reversed the actions of the agonist JI-36, indicating the specificity of this agonist. In vivo, the function of pancreatic islets was assessed by transplantation of rat islets under the kidney capsule of streptozotocin-induced diabetic non-obese diabetic-severe combined immunodeficiency (NOD-SCID) mice. Islets treated with GHRH agonist JI-36 were able to achieve normoglycemia earlier and more consistently than untreated islets. Furthermore, in contrast to diabetic animals transplanted with untreated islets, insulin response to an i.p. glucose tolerance test (IPGTT) in animals receiving islets treated with agonist Jl-36 was comparable to that of normal healthy mice. In conclusion, our study provides evidence that agonists of GHRH represent a promising pharmacological therapy aimed at promoting islet graft growth and proliferation in diabetic patients.

Elevated mineralocorticoid receptor activity in aged rat vascular smooth muscle cells promotes a proinflammatory phenotype via extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase and epidermal growth factor receptor-dependent pathways

Arterial aging is a predominant risk factor for the onset of cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension, myocardial infarction, or stroke. Aging is associated with intravascular renin-angiotensin system activation, increased vascular stiffness, intima-media thickening, and a proinflammatory phenotype. Little is known about the influence of aldosterone on arterial aging. Hence, we hypothesized that aldosterone and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) activation might contribute to and possibly accelerate the arterial aging process. We demonstrate increased MR expression in whole aortae and early passage aortic vascular smooth muscle cells from aged (30 months) compared with adult (8 months) F344XBN rats. Sensitivity to aldosterone-induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase activity is increased in aged cells. MR blockade and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibition prevent age-associated increases of transforming growth factor-beta, intercellular adhesion molecule 1, and procollagen 1. Aldosterone increases expression of proinflammatory marker proteins, shifting the phenotype of adult vascular smooth muscle cells toward the proinflammatory phenotype of aged rats. Epidermal growth factor receptor expression is increased with age and by aldosterone, and inhibition of epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase decreases age-associated proinflammatory marker expression. Our data support the hypothesis that increased constitutive MR signaling may promote and amplify age-associated inflammation that accompanies arterial aging through increased angiotensin II-stimulated expression of MR and enhanced sensitivity to aldosterone-mediated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 activation, likely related to increased epidermal growth factor receptor expression.

Dehydroepiandrosterone-sulphate (DHEA-S) promotes neuroendocrine differentiation of chromaffin pheochromocytoma PC12 cells

The major source for dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulphate compound DHEA-S is the inner zone of the adrenal cortex, which is in direct contact to adrenomedullary chromaffin cells. Due to their close proximity, direct interactions of DHEA and DHEA-S with chromaffin cells during adrenal gland development and throughout the whole life span are hypothesized. A possible direct effect of DHEA-S and the cellular and molecular mechanisms of DHEA-S action on chromaffin cells remain unresolved. Therefore, in this study, we aimed at clarifying DHEA-S effects and mechanisms of action on rat chromaffin PC12 cells. DHEA-S (10(-6)mol/l) inhibited nerve growth factor (NGF, 20ng/ml)-induced cell proliferation by 66% (n=4, p<0.001). In NGF-stimulated cells, neuronal differentiation was inhibited by DHEA-S, as demonstrated by a 22% reduction (n=3; p<0.05) of neuronal differentiation marker expression, synaptosome-associated protein of 25kDa (SNAP-25), and a 59% (n=6; p<0.001) decrease in neurite outgrowth. Moreover, DHEA-S stimulated expression of endocrine marker chromogranin A (CgA) by 31% (n=4; p<0.05 vs. control) and catecholamine release from NGF-treated PC12 cells by 229% (n=3-5; p<0.001), indicating a DHEA-S-induced shift towards neuroendocrine differentiation. On a molecular level, DHEA-S diminished NGF-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Taken together, DHEA-S inhibited NGF-induced proliferation and neuronal differentiation and shifted cells towards a more endocrine phenotype. Interference of DHEA-S with NGF-stimulated ERK1/2 activation might be involved in this effect. Our study provides support for the notion that adrenocortical-derived DHEA-S impacts adrenomedullary chromaffin cells during development and differentiation.

Decreased p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation in gender- or hormone-related but not during age-related adrenal gland growth in mice

Postnatal growth of the mouse adrenal gland shows a characteristic gender-dependent pattern, resulting in an almost 2-fold higher adrenal weight in 11-wk-old female vs. male mice. We demonstrated that the higher weight of the adrenal glands in female mice is due to a significantly (P < 0.05) increased growth rate in female mice and a shorter growth phase of the adrenal glands in male mice (P < 0.05). To address the signaling mechanisms underlying these differential growth patterns, we evaluated the phosphorylation levels of p44/42 and p38 MAPK. In female mice, age-dependent reductions of p38 MAPK phosphorylation were found between wk 3 and 9 (47% reduction; P < 0.05). At the age of 11 wk, the p38 MAPK phosphorylation level in female adrenal glands was about 60% lower than in the male counterparts (P < 0.01). Similarly, the phosphorylation level of p44/42 MAPK was 50% lower in female adrenal glands (P < 0.001). Reduced activation of p44/42 MAPK was also observed after growth stimulation of the adrenal glands in male mice after ACTH treatment (-36%; P < 0.001) or by expression of a GH transgene (-34%; P < 0.001), whereas p38 MAPK, JNK, or PDK1 activation was unaffected. From our findings in three independent mouse models where partial deactivation of p44/42 MAPK was observed under conditions of elevated growth, we suggest a function of p44/42 MAPK for adrenal growth and a role of p44/42 MAPK for the integration of different endocrine stimuli.

Neurobiological and neuropsychiatric effects of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and DHEA sulfate (DHEAS)

DHEA and DHEAS are steroids synthesized in human adrenals, but their function is unclear. In addition to adrenal synthesis, evidence also indicates that DHEA and DHEAS are synthesized in the brain, further suggesting a role of these hormones in brain function and development. Despite intensifying research into the biology of DHEA and DHEAS, many questions concerning their mechanisms of action and their potential involvement in neuropsychiatric illnesses remain unanswered. We review and distill the preclinical and clinical data on DHEA and DHEAS, focusing on (i) biological actions and putative mechanisms of action, (ii) differences in endogenous circulating concentrations in normal subjects and patients with neuropsychiatric diseases, and (iii) the therapeutic potential of DHEA in treating these conditions. Biological actions of DHEA and DHEAS include neuroprotection, neurite growth, and antagonistic effects on oxidants and glucocorticoids. Accumulating data suggest abnormal DHEA and/or DHEAS concentrations in several neuropsychiatric conditions. The evidence that DHEA and DHEAS may be fruitful targets for pharmacotherapy in some conditions is reviewed.