1
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Radomsky T, Anderson RC, Millar RP, Newton CL. Restoring function to inactivating G protein-coupled receptor variants in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis 1. J Neuroendocrinol 2024:e13418. [PMID: 38852954 DOI: 10.1111/jne.13418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are central to the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG axis) and include the rhodopsin-like GPCR family members, neurokinin 3 receptor, kappa-opioid receptor, kisspeptin 1 receptor, gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor, and the gonadotropin receptors, luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor and follicle-stimulating hormone receptor. Unsurprisingly, inactivating variants of these receptors have been implicated in a spectrum of reproductive phenotypes, including failure to undergo puberty, and infertility. Clinical induction of puberty in patients harbouring such variants is possible, but restoration of fertility is not always a realisable outcome, particularly for those patients suffering from primary hypogonadism. Thus, novel pharmaceuticals and/or a fundamental change in approach to treating these patients are required. The increasing wealth of data describing the effects of coding-region genetic variants on GPCR function has highlighted that the majority appear to be dysfunctional as a result of misfolding of the encoded receptor protein, which, in turn, results in impaired receptor trafficking through the secretory pathway to the cell surface. As such, these intracellularly retained receptors may be amenable to 'rescue' using a pharmacological chaperone (PC)-based approach. PCs are small, cell permeant molecules hypothesised to interact with misfolded intracellularly retained proteins, stabilising their folding and promoting their trafficking through the secretory pathway. In support of the use of this approach as a viable therapeutic option, it has been observed that many rescued variant GPCRs retain at least a degree of functionality when 'rescued' to the cell surface. In this review, we examine the GPCR PC research landscape, focussing on the rescue of inactivating variant GPCRs with important roles in the HPG axis, and describe what is known regarding the mechanisms by which PCs restore trafficking and function. We also discuss some of the merits and obstacles associated with taking this approach forward into a clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarryn Radomsky
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Ross C Anderson
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Robert P Millar
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Claire L Newton
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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2
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Lazzaretti C, Simoni M, Casarini L, Paradiso E. Allosteric modulation of gonadotropin receptors. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1179079. [PMID: 37305033 PMCID: PMC10248450 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1179079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Gonadotropins regulate reproductive functions by binding to G protein-coupled receptors (FSHR and LHCGR) expressed in the gonads. They activate multiple, cell-specific signalling pathways, consisting of ligand-dependent intracellular events. Signalling cascades may be modulated by synthetic compounds which bind allosteric sites of FSHR and LHCGR or by membrane receptor interactions. Despite the hormone binding to the orthosteric site, allosteric ligands, and receptor heteromerizations may reshape intracellular signalling pattern. These molecules act as positive, negative, or neutral allosteric modulators, as well as non-competitive or inverse agonist ligands, providing a set of new compounds of a different nature and with unique pharmacological characteristics. Gonadotropin receptor allosteric modulation is gathering increasing interest from the scientific community and may be potentially exploited for clinical purposes. This review summarizes the current knowledge on gonadotropin receptor allosteric modulation and their potential, clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Lazzaretti
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Baggiovara Hospital, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Manuela Simoni
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Baggiovara Hospital, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- Department of Medical Specialties, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Modena, Baggiovara Hospital, Modena, Italy
| | - Livio Casarini
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Baggiovara Hospital, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Elia Paradiso
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Baggiovara Hospital, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
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3
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Duan J, Xu P, Zhang H, Luan X, Yang J, He X, Mao C, Shen DD, Ji Y, Cheng X, Jiang H, Jiang Y, Zhang S, Zhang Y, Xu HE. Mechanism of hormone and allosteric agonist mediated activation of follicle stimulating hormone receptor. Nat Commun 2023; 14:519. [PMID: 36720854 PMCID: PMC9889800 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36170-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is an essential glycoprotein hormone for human reproduction, which functions are mediated by a G protein-coupled receptor, FSHR. Aberrant FSH-FSHR signaling causes infertility and ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Here we report cryo-EM structures of FSHR in both inactive and active states, with the active structure bound to FSH and an allosteric agonist compound 21 f. The structures of FSHR are similar to other glycoprotein hormone receptors, highlighting a conserved activation mechanism of hormone-induced receptor activation. Compound 21 f formed extensive interactions with the TMD to directly activate FSHR. Importantly, the unique residue H6157.42 in FSHR plays an essential role in determining FSHR selectivity for various allosteric agonists. Together, our structures provide a molecular basis of FSH and small allosteric agonist-mediated FSHR activation, which could inspire the design of FSHR-targeted drugs for the treatment of infertility and controlled ovarian stimulation for in vitro fertilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Duan
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 201203, Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
| | - Peiyu Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 201203, Shanghai, China
| | - Huibing Zhang
- Department of Biophysics and Department of Pathology of Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,MOE Frontier Science Center for Brain Research and Brain-Machine Integration, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Immunity and Inflammatory diseases, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiaodong Luan
- Department of Cardiology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.,Medical Research Center, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.,School of medicine, Tsinghua university, Beijing, China.,Tsinghua-Peking Center for life science, Tsinghua university, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaqi Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 201203, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinheng He
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 201203, Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
| | - Chunyou Mao
- Department of Biophysics and Department of Pathology of Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,MOE Frontier Science Center for Brain Research and Brain-Machine Integration, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Immunity and Inflammatory diseases, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Dan-Dan Shen
- Department of Biophysics and Department of Pathology of Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,MOE Frontier Science Center for Brain Research and Brain-Machine Integration, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Immunity and Inflammatory diseases, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yujie Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 201203, Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
| | - Xi Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 201203, Shanghai, China
| | - Hualiang Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 201203, Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China.,Lingang Laboratory, 200031, Shanghai, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, 201210, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi Jiang
- Lingang Laboratory, 200031, Shanghai, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, 201210, Shanghai, China
| | - Shuyang Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China. .,Medical Research Center, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China. .,School of medicine, Tsinghua university, Beijing, China. .,Tsinghua-Peking Center for life science, Tsinghua university, Beijing, China.
| | - Yan Zhang
- Department of Biophysics and Department of Pathology of Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China. .,Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China. .,MOE Frontier Science Center for Brain Research and Brain-Machine Integration, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China. .,Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Immunity and Inflammatory diseases, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - H Eric Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 201203, Shanghai, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China. .,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, 201210, Shanghai, China.
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4
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Fokina EF, Shpakov AO. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone Receptor: the Role in the Development of Thyroid Pathology and Its Correction. J EVOL BIOCHEM PHYS+ 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s0022093022050143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
One of the key elements responsible for the thyroid response
to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is the TSH receptor (TSHR),
which belongs to the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily. Binding
of TSH or stimulatory autoantibodies to the TSHR extracellular domain
triggers multiple signaling pathways in target cells that are mediated
through various types of G proteins and β-arrestins. Inhibitory
autoantibodies, in contrast, suppress TSHR activity, inducing hypothyroid states.
Activating mutations lead to constitutively active TSHR forms and
can trigger cancer. Therefore, the TSHR is one of the key targets
for the regulation of thyroid function and thyroid status, as well
as correction of diseases caused by changes in TSHR activity (autoimmune
hyper- and hypothyroidism, Graves’ ophthalmopathy, thyroid cancer).
TSH preparations are extremely rarely used in medicine due to their
immunogenicity and severe side effects. Most promising is the development
of low-molecular allosteric TSHR regulators with an activity of
full and inverse agonists and neutral antagonists, which are able
to penetrate into the allosteric site located in the TSHR transmembrane
domain and specifically bind to it, thus controlling the ability
of the receptor to interact with G proteins and β-arrestins. Allosteric
regulators do not affect the binding of TSH and autoantibodies to
the receptor, which enables mild and selective regulation of thyroid function,
while avoiding critical changes in TSH and thyroid hormone levels.
The present review addresses the current state of the problem of
regulating TSHR activity, including the possibility of using ligands
of its allosteric sites.
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5
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Aathi MS, Kumar C, Prabhudesai KS, Shanmugarajan D, Idicula-Thomas S. Mapping of FSHR agonists and antagonists binding sites to identify potential peptidomimetic modulators. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. BIOMEMBRANES 2022; 1864:183842. [PMID: 34954201 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2021.183842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Owing to the critical role of follicle stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) signaling in human reproduction, FSHR has been widely explored for development of fertility regulators. Using high-throughput screening approaches, several low molecular weight (LMW) compounds that can modulate FSHR activity have been identified. However, the information about the binding sites of these molecules on FSHR is not known. In the present study, we extracted the structural and functional information of 161 experimentally validated LMW FSHR modulators available in PubMed records. The potential FSHR binding sites for these modulators were identified through molecular docking experiments. The binding sites were further mapped to the agonist or antagonist activity reported for these molecules in literature. MD simulations were performed to evaluate the effect of ligand binding on conformational changes in the receptor, specifically the transmembrane domain. A peptidomimetic library was screened using these binding sites. Six peptidomimetics that interacted with the residues of transmembrane domain and extracellular loops were evaluated for binding activity using in vitro cAMP assay. Two of the six peptidomimetics exhibited positive allosteric modulatory activity and four peptidomimetics exhibited negative allosteric modulatory activity. All six peptidomimetics interacted with Asp521 of hFSHR(TMD). Several of the experimentally known LMW FSHR modulators also participated in H-bond interactions with Asp521, suggesting its important role in FSHR modulatory activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muthu Sankar Aathi
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive and Child Health, Mumbai 400012, India
| | - Chandan Kumar
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive and Child Health, Mumbai 400012, India
| | - Kaushiki S Prabhudesai
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive and Child Health, Mumbai 400012, India
| | | | - Susan Idicula-Thomas
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive and Child Health, Mumbai 400012, India.
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6
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Waghu FH, Desai K, Srinivasan S, Prabhudesai KS, Dighe V, Venkatesh KV, Idicula-Thomas S. FSHR antagonists can trigger a PCOS-like state. Syst Biol Reprod Med 2021; 68:129-137. [PMID: 34967272 DOI: 10.1080/19396368.2021.2010837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Over the recent years, FSHR has become an important target for development of fertility regulating agents, as impairment of FSH-FSHR interaction can lead to subfertility or infertility. In our previous study, we identified a 9-mer peptide (FSHβ (89-97)) that exhibited FSHR antagonist activity. The histopathological and biochemical observations indicated, in addition to FSHR antagonism, a striking resemblance to a PCOS-like state. These observations led us to hypothesize that use of FSHR antagonists can trigger a PCOS-like state. In the present study, to validate this hypothesis, we performed qRT-PCR validation using ovarian tissue samples from our previous study. Expression of three genes known to be differentially expressed in PCOS was evaluated and found to be similar to the PCOS state. To further test the hypothesis, theoretical simulations were carried out by using the human menstrual cycle model available in the literature. Model simulations for FSHR antagonism were indicative of increased testosterone levels, increased ratio of luteinizing hormone/follicle stimulating hormone, and stockpiling of secondary follicles, which are typical characteristics of PCOS. The findings of this study will be relevant while reviewing the utility of FSHR antagonists for fertility regulation and reproductive medicine.Abbreviations: FSH: Follicle-stimulating hormone; FSHR: Follicle-stimulating hormone receptor; cAMP: Cyclic adenosine 3'5' monophosphate; PKA: Protein kinase A; PI3K: Phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PKB: protein kinase B; ERK1/2: Extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2; MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinases; T: testosterone; E2: estradiol; PCOS: Polycystic ovarian syndrome; LH: luteinizing hormone; Lhcgr: luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor; CYP17A1: cytochrome P450 family 17 subfamily A member 1; Inhba: inhibin subunit beta A; qRT-PCR: Real-Time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction; FSHβ: Follicle-stimulating hormone β subunit; Ct: Cycle threshold; Rn18s: Rattus norvegicus 18S ribosomal RNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faiza Hanif Waghu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Karishma Desai
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR- National Institute for Research in Reproductive and Child Health, Mumbai, India
| | - Sumana Srinivasan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Kaushiki S Prabhudesai
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR- National Institute for Research in Reproductive and Child Health, Mumbai, India
| | - Vikas Dighe
- National Center for Preclinical Reproductive and Genetic Toxicology, ICMR- National Institute for Research in Reproductive and Child Health, Mumbai, India
| | | | - Susan Idicula-Thomas
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR- National Institute for Research in Reproductive and Child Health, Mumbai, India
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7
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Hanyroup S, Anderson RC, Nataraja S, Yu HN, Millar RP, Newton CL. Rescue of Cell Surface Expression and Signaling of Mutant Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Receptors. Endocrinology 2021; 162:6311857. [PMID: 34192304 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) underlie numerous diseases. Many cause receptor misfolding and failure to reach the cell surface. Pharmacological chaperones are cell-permeant small molecules that engage nascent mutant GPCRs in the endoplasmic reticulum, stabilizing folding and "rescuing" cell surface expression. We previously demonstrated rescue of cell surface expression of luteinizing hormone receptor mutants by an allosteric agonist. Here we demonstrate that a similar approach can be employed to rescue mutant follicle-stimulating hormone receptors (FSHRs) with poor cell surface expression using a small-molecule FSHR agonist, CAN1404. Seventeen FSHR mutations described in patients with reproductive dysfunction were expressed in HEK 293T cells, and cell surface expression was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of epitope-tagged FSHRs before/after treatment with CAN1404. Cell surface expression was severely reduced to ≤18% of wild-type (WT) for 11, modestly reduced to 66% to 84% of WT for 4, and not reduced for 2. Of the 11 with severely reduced cell surface expression, restoration to ≥57% of WT levels was achieved for 6 by treatment with 1 µM CAN1404 for 24 h, and a corresponding increase in FSH-induced signaling was observed for 4 of these, indicating restored functionality. Therefore, CAN1404 acts as a pharmacological chaperone and can rescue cell surface expression and function of certain mutant FSHRs with severely reduced cell surface expression. These findings aid in advancing the understanding of the effects of genetic mutations on GPCR function and provide a proof of therapeutic principle for FSHR pharmacological chaperones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharika Hanyroup
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Ross C Anderson
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | | | | | - Robert P Millar
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- School of Medicine, Medical and Biological Sciences Building, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Claire L Newton
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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8
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Pharmacological Characterization of Low Molecular Weight Biased Agonists at the Follicle Stimulating Hormone Receptor. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22189850. [PMID: 34576014 PMCID: PMC8469697 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22189850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) plays a key role in reproduction through the activation of multiple signaling pathways. Low molecular weight (LMW) ligands composed of biased agonist properties are highly valuable tools to decipher complex signaling mechanisms as they allow selective activation of discrete signaling cascades. However, available LMW FSHR ligands have not been fully characterized yet. In this context, we explored the pharmacological diversity of three benzamide and two thiazolidinone derivatives compared to FSH. Concentration/activity curves were generated for Gαs, Gαq, Gαi, β-arrestin 2 recruitment, and cAMP production, using BRET assays in living cells. ERK phosphorylation was analyzed by Western blotting, and CRE-dependent transcription was assessed using a luciferase reporter assay. All assays were done in either wild-type, Gαs or β-arrestin 1/2 CRISPR knockout HEK293 cells. Bias factors were calculated for each pair of read-outs by using the operational model. Our results show that each ligand presented a discrete pharmacological efficacy compared to FSH, ranging from super-agonist for β-arrestin 2 recruitment to pure Gαs bias. Interestingly, LMW ligands generated kinetic profiles distinct from FSH (i.e., faster, slower or transient, depending on the ligand) and correlated with CRE-dependent transcription. In addition, clear system biases were observed in cells depleted of either Gαs or β-arrestin genes. Such LMW properties are useful pharmacological tools to better dissect the multiple signaling pathways activated by FSHR and assess their relative contributions at the cellular and physio-pathological levels.
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9
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Prabhudesai KS, Raje S, Desai K, Modi D, Dighe V, Contini A, Idicula-Thomas S. Central residues of FSHβ (89-97) peptide are not critical for FSHR binding: Implications for peptidomimetic design. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2021; 44:128132. [PMID: 34022413 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2021.128132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
In our previous study, we had identified a 9-mer peptide (FSHβ (89-97)) derived from seat belt loop of human FSHβ and demonstrated its ability to function as FSHR antagonist in vivo. Structure analysis revealed that the four central residues 91STDC94 within this peptide may not be critical for receptor binding. In the present study, 91STDC94 residues were substituted with alanine to generate ΔFSHβ 89-97(91STDC94/AAAA) peptide. Analogous to the parent peptide, ΔFSHβ 89-97(91STDC94/AAAA) peptide inhibited binding of iodinated FSH to rat FSHR and reduced FSH-induced cAMP production. The peptide could impede granulosa cell proliferation leading to reduction in FSH-mediated ovarian weight gain in immature female rats. In these rats, peptide administration further downregulated androgen receptor and estrogen receptor-alpha expression and upregulated estrogen receptor-beta expression. The results indicate that substitution of 91STDC94 with alanine did not significantly alter FSHR antagonist activity of FSHβ (89-97) peptide implying that these residues are not critical for FSH-FSHR interaction and can be replaced with non-peptidic moieties for development of more potent peptidomimetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaushiki S Prabhudesai
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai 400012, Maharashtra, India
| | - Sahil Raje
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai 400012, Maharashtra, India
| | - Karishma Desai
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai 400012, Maharashtra, India
| | - Deepak Modi
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, JM Street, Parel, Mumbai 400012, Maharashtra, India
| | - Vikas Dighe
- National Center for Preclinical Reproductive and Genetic Toxicology, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai 400012, Maharashtra, India
| | - Alessandro Contini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche - Sezione di Chimica Generale e Organica "Alessandro Marchesini", Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Venezian, 21, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Susan Idicula-Thomas
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai 400012, Maharashtra, India.
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10
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Abstract
Gonadotropins are glycoprotein sex hormones regulating development and reproduction and bind to specific G protein–coupled receptors expressed in the gonads. Their effects on multiple signaling cascades and intracellular events have recently been characterized using novel technological and scientific tools. The impact of allosteric modulators on gonadotropin signaling, the role of sugars linked to the hormone backbone, the detection of endosomal compartments supporting signaling modules, and the dissection of different effects mediated by these molecules are areas that have advanced significantly in the last decade. The classic view providing the exclusive activation of the cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) and the steroidogenic pathway by these hormones has been expanded with the addition of novel signaling cascades as determined by high-resolution imaging techniques. These new findings provided new potential therapeutic applications. Despite these improvements, unanswered issues of gonadotropin physiology, such as the intrinsic pro-apoptotic potential to these hormones, the existence of receptors assembled as heteromers, and their expression in extragonadal tissues, remain to be studied. Elucidating these issues is a challenge for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livio Casarini
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Manuela Simoni
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medical Specialties, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Modena, Via P. Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
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Nataraja S, Yu H, Guner J, Palmer S. Discovery and Preclinical Development of Orally Active Small Molecules that Exhibit Highly Selective Follicle Stimulating Hormone Receptor Agonism. Front Pharmacol 2021; 11:602593. [PMID: 33519465 PMCID: PMC7845544 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.602593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
An orally active follicle stimulating hormone receptor allosteric agonist would provide a preferred treatment for over 16 million infertile women of reproductive age in low complexity methods (ovulation induction-intrauterine insemination) or in high complexity methods (controlled ovarian stimulation-in vitro fertilization). We present two oral follicle stimulating hormone receptor allosteric agonist compounds that have the desired pharmacology, drug metabolism, pharmacokinetics, and safety profile for clinical use. These molecules provide a single agent suitable for ovulation induction-intrauterine insemination or controlled ovarian stimulation-in vitro fertilization that is more convenient for patients and achieves similar preclinical efficacy as rec-hFSH. TOP5668, TOP5300 were evaluated in vitro in Chinese hamster ovary cells transfected with individual glycoprotein receptors measuring cAMP (FSHR, LH/CGR, thyroid stimulating hormone receptor). TOP5668 was found to have solely follicle stimulating hormone receptor allosteric agonist activity while TOP5300 was found to have mixed follicle stimulating hormone receptor allosteric agonist and LHR-AA activity. Both compounds stimulated concentration-dependent increases in estradiol production from cultured rat granulosa cells in the presence or absence of low dose rec-hFSH, while only TOP5300 stimulated testosterone production from rat primary Leydig cells. In pooled human granulosa cells obtained from patients undergoing controlled ovarian stimulation-in vitro fertilization, TOP5300 stimulated 7-fold greater maximal estradiol response than rec-hFSH and TOP5668 was 10-fold more potent than TOP5300. Both TOP5300 and TOP5668 stimulated follicular development in immature rat to the same efficacy as recombinant follicle stimulating hormone. In mice treated with TOP5300, in the presence of low dose of follicle stimulating hormone, there were no differences in oocyte number, fertilization rate, and hatched blastocyst rate in mice with TOP5300 and low dose follicle stimulating hormone vs. reference proteins pregnant mare serum gonadotropin or high dose rec-hFSH. ADME/PK and safety profiles were favorable. In addition, there was no appreciable activity on thyroid hormones by TOP5300 in 14-days toxicological study in rat or dog. The selected lead compound, TOP5300 stimulated a more robust increase in estradiol production from granulosa-lutein cells from women with polycystic ovarian syndrome patient compared to rec-hFSH. Conclusions: Two novel oral FSHR allosteric agonist, TOP5668 and TOP5300, were found to mimic the biological activity of rec hFSH in preclinical studies. Both compounds led to folliculogenesis and superovulation in rat and mice. Specifically, TOP5300 led to a similar number of ovulated oocytes that fertilized and developed into hatched blastocysts in mice when compared to rec-hFSH. The safety profile demonstrated lack of toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Joie Guner
- Center for Drug Discovery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Stephen Palmer
- TocopheRx, Inc., Groton, MA, United States
- Center for Drug Discovery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
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12
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A 5-mer peptide derived from hinge region of hFSHR can function as positive allosteric modulator in vivo. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2020; 1863:183492. [PMID: 33065137 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2020.183492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Interaction of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) with its cognate receptor (FSHR) is critical for maintaining reproductive health. FSHR has a large extracellular domain (ECD), composed of leucine rich repeats (LRRs) and hinge region, a transmembrane domain (TMD) and a short C-terminal domain (CTD). In this study, we have identified a short peptidic stretch in the hinge region (hFSHR(271-275)), through extensive computational modeling, docking and MD simulations, that is capable of independently interacting with the extracellular loops of FSHR(TMD). In vitro studies revealed that FSHR(271-275) peptide increased binding of [125I]-FSH to rat Fshr as well as FSH-induced cAMP production. Administration of FSHR(271-275) peptide in immature female rats significantly increased FSH-mediated ovarian weight gain and promoted granulosa cell proliferation. In summary, the results demonstrate that the synthetic peptide corresponding to amino acids 271-275 of hFSHR-hinge region stimulates FSH-FSHR interaction and behaves as positive allosteric modulator of FSHR. The study also lends evidence to the existing proposition that hinge region maintains the receptor in an inactive conformation in the absence of its ligand by engaging in intramolecular interactions with extracellular loops of TMD.
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13
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Simoni M, Brigante G, Rochira V, Santi D, Casarini L. Prospects for FSH Treatment of Male Infertility. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2020; 105:5831300. [PMID: 32374828 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgaa243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Despite the new opportunities provided by assisted reproductive technology (ART), male infertility treatment is far from being optimized. One possibility, based on pathophysiological evidence, is to stimulate spermatogenesis with gonadotropins. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION We conducted a comprehensive systematic PubMed literature review, up to January 2020, of studies evaluating the genetic basis of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) action, the role of FSH in spermatogenesis, and the effects of its administration in male infertility. Manuscripts evaluating the role of genetic polymorphisms and FSH administration in women undergoing ART were considered whenever relevant. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS FSH treatment has been successfully used in hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, but with questionable results in idiopathic male infertility. A limitation of this approach is that treatment plans for male infertility have been borrowed from hypogonadism, without daring to overstimulate, as is done in women undergoing ART. FSH effectiveness depends not only on its serum levels, but also on individual genetic variants able to determine hormonal levels, activity, and receptor response. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the follicle-stimulating hormone subunit beta (FSHB) and follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) genes have been described, with some of them affecting testicular volume and sperm output. The FSHR p.N680S and the FSHB -211G>T variants could be genetic markers to predict FSH response. CONCLUSIONS FSH may be helpful to increase sperm production in infertile men, even if the evidence to recommend the use of FSH in this setting is weak. Placebo-controlled clinical trials, considering the FSHB-FSHR haplotype, are needed to define the most effective dosage, the best treatment length, and the criteria to select candidate responder patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Simoni
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medical Specialties, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria of Modena, Modena, Italy
- Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements (PRC), Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement (INRAE), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut Français du Cheval et de l'Equitation (IFCE), Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Giulia Brigante
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medical Specialties, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria of Modena, Modena, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Rochira
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medical Specialties, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria of Modena, Modena, Italy
| | - Daniele Santi
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medical Specialties, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria of Modena, Modena, Italy
| | - Livio Casarini
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Medical Specialties, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria of Modena, Modena, Italy
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14
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Coss D. Commentary on the Recent FSH Collection: Known Knowns and Known Unknowns. Endocrinology 2020; 161:5683667. [PMID: 31865385 PMCID: PMC6986550 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqz035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a dimeric glycoprotein secreted by the anterior pituitary gonadotrope that is necessary for reproductive function in mammals. FSH primarily regulates granulosa cells and follicular growth in females, and Sertoli cell function in males. Since its identification in the 1930s and sequencing in the 1970s, significant progress has been made in elucidating its regulation and downstream function. Recent advances provide deeper insight into FSH synthesis, and effects in the gonads suggest potential roles in extragonadal tissues and examine pharmacological approaches and clinical applications in infertility treatment that now affect 18% of couples. These advances were discussed in detail in a number of reviews published in the last 2 years in Endocrinology. In this brief commentary, we summarize these reviews and point to the outstanding questions that should be answered in the near future to bridge a gap in our understanding of this hormone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Djurdjica Coss
- Division of Biomedical Sciences; School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside; Riverside, California
- Correspondence: Djurdjica Coss, Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside; Riverside, California. E-mail:
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Landomiel F, De Pascali F, Raynaud P, Jean-Alphonse F, Yvinec R, Pellissier LP, Bozon V, Bruneau G, Crépieux P, Poupon A, Reiter E. Biased Signaling and Allosteric Modulation at the FSHR. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2019; 10:148. [PMID: 30930853 PMCID: PMC6425863 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowledge on G protein-coupled receptor (GPCRs) structure and mechanism of activation has profoundly evolved over the past years. The way drugs targeting this family of receptors are discovered and used has also changed. Ligands appear to bind a growing number of GPCRs in a competitive or allosteric manner to elicit balanced signaling or biased signaling (i.e., differential efficacy in activating or inhibiting selective signaling pathway(s) compared to the reference ligand). These novel concepts and developments transform our understanding of the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) receptor (FSHR) biology and the way it could be pharmacologically modulated in the future. The FSHR is expressed in somatic cells of the gonads and plays a major role in reproduction. When compared to classical GPCRs, the FSHR exhibits intrinsic peculiarities, such as a very large NH2-terminal extracellular domain that binds a naturally heterogeneous, large heterodimeric glycoprotein, namely FSH. Once activated, the FSHR couples to Gαs and, in some instances, to other Gα subunits. G protein-coupled receptor kinases and β-arrestins are also recruited to this receptor and account for its desensitization, trafficking, and intracellular signaling. Different classes of pharmacological tools capable of biasing FSHR signaling have been reported and open promising prospects both in basic research and for therapeutic applications. Here we provide an updated review of the most salient peculiarities of FSHR signaling and its selective modulation.
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