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Melau C, Nielsen JE, Perlman S, Lundvall L, Langhoff Thuesen L, Juul Hare K, Schou Hammerum M, Frederiksen H, Mitchell RT, Juul A, Jørgensen A. Establishment of a Novel Human Fetal Adrenal Culture Model that Supports de Novo and Manipulated Steroidogenesis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2021; 106:843-857. [PMID: 33212489 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgaa852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Disorders affecting adrenal steroidogenesis promote an imbalance in the normally tightly controlled secretion of mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. This may lead to differences/disorders of sex development in the fetus, as seen in virilized girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Despite the important endocrine function of human fetal adrenals, neither normal nor dysregulated adrenal steroidogenesis is understood in detail. OBJECTIVE Due to significant differences in adrenal steroidogenesis between human and model species (except higher primates), we aimed to establish a human fetal adrenal model that enables examination of both de novo and manipulated adrenal steroidogenesis. DESIGN AND SETTING Human adrenal tissue from 54 1st trimester fetuses were cultured ex vivo as intact tissue fragments for 7 or 14 days. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Model validation included examination of postculture tissue morphology, viability, apoptosis, and quantification of steroid hormones secreted to the culture media measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS The culture approach maintained cell viability, preserved cell populations of all fetal adrenal zones, and recapitulated de novo adrenal steroidogenesis based on continued secretion of steroidogenic intermediates, glucocorticoids, and androgens. Adrenocorticotropic hormone and ketoconazole treatment of ex vivo cultured human fetal adrenal tissue resulted in the stimulation of steroidogenesis and inhibition of androgen secretion, respectively, demonstrating a treatment-specific response. CONCLUSIONS Together, these data indicate that ex vivo culture of human fetal adrenal tissue constitutes a novel approach to investigate local effects of pharmaceutical exposures or emerging therapeutic options targeting imbalanced steroidogenesis in adrenal disorders, including CAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilie Melau
- Department of Growth and Reproduction, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- International Center for Research and Research Training in Endocrine Disruption of Male Reproduction and Child Health, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - John E Nielsen
- Department of Growth and Reproduction, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- International Center for Research and Research Training in Endocrine Disruption of Male Reproduction and Child Health, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Signe Perlman
- Department of Gynaecology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lene Lundvall
- Department of Gynaecology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lea Langhoff Thuesen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Hvidovre University Hospital, Hvidovre, Denmark
| | - Kristine Juul Hare
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Hvidovre University Hospital, Hvidovre, Denmark
| | - Mette Schou Hammerum
- Departmet of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Herlev University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
| | - Hanne Frederiksen
- Department of Growth and Reproduction, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- International Center for Research and Research Training in Endocrine Disruption of Male Reproduction and Child Health, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rod T Mitchell
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Anders Juul
- Department of Growth and Reproduction, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- International Center for Research and Research Training in Endocrine Disruption of Male Reproduction and Child Health, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anne Jørgensen
- Department of Growth and Reproduction, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- International Center for Research and Research Training in Endocrine Disruption of Male Reproduction and Child Health, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Seccia TM, Caroccia B, Gomez-Sanchez EP, Gomez-Sanchez CE, Rossi GP. The Biology of Normal Zona Glomerulosa and Aldosterone-Producing Adenoma: Pathological Implications. Endocr Rev 2018; 39:1029-1056. [PMID: 30007283 PMCID: PMC6236434 DOI: 10.1210/er.2018-00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The identification of several germline and somatic ion channel mutations in aldosterone-producing adenomas (APAs) and detection of cell clusters that can be responsible for excess aldosterone production, as well as the isolation of autoantibodies activating the angiotensin II type 1 receptor, have rapidly advanced the understanding of the biology of primary aldosteronism (PA), particularly that of APA. Hence, the main purpose of this review is to discuss how discoveries of the last decade could affect histopathology analysis and clinical practice. The structural remodeling through development and aging of the human adrenal cortex, particularly of the zona glomerulosa, and the complex regulation of aldosterone, with emphasis on the concepts of zonation and channelopathies, will be addressed. Finally, the diagnostic workup for PA and its subtyping to optimize treatment are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa M Seccia
- Department of Medicine-DIMED, University of Padua, Padua PD, Italy
| | | | - Elise P Gomez-Sanchez
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, G.V. (Sonny) Montgomery VA Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi
| | - Celso E Gomez-Sanchez
- Division of Endocrinology, G.V. (Sonny) Montgomery VA Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi.,University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi
| | - Gian Paolo Rossi
- Department of Medicine-DIMED, University of Padua, Padua PD, Italy
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Friedrich J, Brand B, Graunke KL, Langbein J, Schwerin M, Ponsuksili S. Adrenocortical Expression Profiling of Cattle with Distinct Juvenile Temperament Types. Behav Genet 2016; 47:102-113. [PMID: 27586633 DOI: 10.1007/s10519-016-9816-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Temperament affects ease of handling, animal welfare, and economically important production traits in cattle. The use of gene expression profiles as molecular traits provides a novel means of gaining insight into behavioural genetics. In this study, differences in adrenocortical expression profiles between 60 F2 cows (Charolais × German Holstein) of distinct temperament types were analysed. The cows were assessed in a novel-human test at an age of 90 days. Most of the adrenal cortex transcripts which were differentially expressed (FDR <0.05) were found between temperament types of 'fearful/neophobic-alert' and all other temperament types. These transcripts belong to several biological functions like NRF2-mediated oxidative stress response, Glucocorticoid Receptor Signalling and Complement System. Overall, the present study provides new insight into transcriptional differences in the adrenal cortex between cows of distinct temperament types. Genetic regulations of such molecular traits facilitate uncovering positional and functional gene candidates for temperament type in cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Friedrich
- Institute for Farm Animal Research and Technology, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Bodo Brand
- Institute for Genome Biology, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology, Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, 18196, Dummerstorf, Germany
| | - Katharina Luise Graunke
- Institute for Behavioural Physiology, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology, Dummerstorf, Germany
| | - Jan Langbein
- Institute for Behavioural Physiology, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology, Dummerstorf, Germany
| | - Manfred Schwerin
- Institute for Farm Animal Research and Technology, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany.,Institute for Genome Biology, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology, Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, 18196, Dummerstorf, Germany
| | - Siriluck Ponsuksili
- Institute for Genome Biology, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology, Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, 18196, Dummerstorf, Germany.
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Jee YH, Lebenthal Y, Chaemsaithong P, Yan G, Peran I, Wellstein A, Romero R, Baron J. Midkine and Pleiotrophin Concentrations in Amniotic Fluid in Healthy and Complicated Pregnancies. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153325. [PMID: 27089523 PMCID: PMC4835047 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Midkine (MDK) and pleiotrophin (PTN) are heparin-binding growth factors that, in rodents, are highly expressed in early life and decrease to undetectable levels by adulthood. The potential roles of MDK and PTN in human growth and development are not completely elucidated. Method and Findings To delineate the role of MDK and PTN in human development, we developed high sensitivity assays to measure their concentrations in amniotic fluid (AF) at various gestational ages in both healthy and complicated pregnancies. We found that both of these growth factors could be readily measured in AF and that the concentrations were higher than most cytokines previously reported in AF. Conclusion The concentration of MDK but not that of PTN declined with gestational age. Both MDK and PTN concentrations were found to be lower in pregnancies that were complicated by chorioamnionitis at term, raising the possibility that these growth factors might be useful as markers for infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youn Hee Jee
- Section on Growth and Development, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Yael Lebenthal
- Section on Growth and Development, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Piya Chaemsaithong
- Perinatology Research Branch, Program for Perinatal Research and Obstetrics, Division of Intramural Research, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Gai Yan
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University Medical Center and Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Washington DC, United States of America
| | - Ivana Peran
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University Medical Center and Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Washington DC, United States of America
| | - Anton Wellstein
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University Medical Center and Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Washington DC, United States of America
| | - Roberto Romero
- Perinatology Research Branch, Program for Perinatal Research and Obstetrics, Division of Intramural Research, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey Baron
- Section on Growth and Development, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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100th anniversary of the discovery of the human adrenal fetal zone by Stella Starkel and Lesław Węgrzynowski: how far have we come? Folia Histochem Cytobiol 2011; 48:491-506. [PMID: 21478089 DOI: 10.2478/v10042-010-0062-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Year 2010 marks a centennial anniversary of the description by Stella Starkel and Lesław Węgrzynowski, Polish students of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Lwów, the fetal zone of the human fetal adrenal gland. In 1911 both, Starkel and Węgrzynowski were graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of Lwow University. The paper appeared in the German Arch. Anat. Physiol. and its original title was "Beitrag zur Histologie der Nebeniere bei Feten und Kindern" ("Contribution to histology of adrenals of fetuses and children"). The studies were performed on 100 adrenal glands obtained from fetuses (from 6th month of gestation) and up to 5-year-old children. They described the fetal zone as a "medullary zone", also as "immature cortex", which undergoes involution in first years of life. To commemorate this discovery, this review aimed to present the most important achievements of studies on the development and involution of the human adrenal fetal zone.
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Ishimoto H, Jaffe RB. Development and function of the human fetal adrenal cortex: a key component in the feto-placental unit. Endocr Rev 2011; 32:317-55. [PMID: 21051591 PMCID: PMC3365797 DOI: 10.1210/er.2010-0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Continuous efforts have been devoted to unraveling the biophysiology and development of the human fetal adrenal cortex, which is structurally and functionally unique from other species. It plays a pivotal role, mainly through steroidogenesis, in the regulation of intrauterine homeostasis and in fetal development and maturation. The steroidogenic activity is characterized by early transient cortisol biosynthesis, followed by its suppressed synthesis until late gestation, and extensive production of dehydroepiandrosterone and its sulfate, precursors of placental estrogen, during most of gestation. The gland rapidly grows through processes including cell proliferation and angiogenesis at the gland periphery, cellular migration, hypertrophy, and apoptosis. Recent studies employing modern technologies such as gene expression profiling and laser capture microdissection have revealed that development and/or function of the fetal adrenal cortex may be regulated by a panoply of molecules, including transcription factors, extracellular matrix components, locally produced growth factors, and placenta-derived CRH, in addition to the primary regulator, fetal pituitary ACTH. The role of the fetal adrenal cortex in human pregnancy and parturition appears highly complex, probably due to redundant and compensatory mechanisms regulating these events. Mounting evidence indicates that actions of hormones operating in the human feto-placental unit are likely mediated by mechanisms including target tissue responsiveness, local metabolism, and bioavailability, rather than changes only in circulating levels. Comprehensive study of such molecular mechanisms and the newly identified factors implicated in adrenal development should help crystallize our understanding of the development and physiology of the human fetal adrenal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Ishimoto
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, USA
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Matsumoto T, Minegishi K, Ishimoto H, Tanaka M, Hennebold JD, Teranishi T, Hattori Y, Furuya M, Higuchi T, Asai S, Kim SH, Miyakoshi K, Yoshimura Y. Expression of ovary-specific acidic protein in steroidogenic tissues: a possible role in steroidogenesis. Endocrinology 2009; 150:3353-9. [PMID: 19325000 PMCID: PMC2703556 DOI: 10.1210/en.2008-1584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Ovary-specific acidic protein (OSAP) is a novel molecule discovered from a genomic project designed to identify ovary-selective genes in mice. Whereas public databases suggest extraovarian expression of OSAP, its tissue distribution has not yet been well documented. Thus, the expression profile of mouse and human OSAP was determined by quantitative real-time RT-PCR using RNAs isolated from various tissues. The results demonstrate that the human and mouse OSAP expression profiles are similar; OSAP is prominently expressed in steroidogenic tissues with the highest level of expression observed in the adrenal gland. Placenta served as an exception and possessed minimal level of OSAP mRNA. Immunohistochemical studies show that mouse OSAP localizes almost exclusively to the steroid-producing cells of the ovary, adrenal gland, and testis. Consistent with predictions made by several subcellular localization algorithms, dual labeling studies in Y-1 mouse adrenocortical cells indicate OSAP resides in the mitochondria. Because of its abundant expression in steroidogenic cells and mitochondrial localization, a role for OSAP in steroidogenesis was determined. OSAP silencing by specific small interfering RNAs significantly inhibits 8-bromoadenosine-cAMP-induced progesterone production in Y-1 cells. Reduction in OSAP levels results in mitochondrial fragmentation and a decrease in the cellular content of mitochondrial DNA, indicative of decreased mitochondrial abundance. Lastly, 8-bromoadenosine-cAMP does not regulate OSAP protein expression in Y-1 cells as is the case for other steroidogenic components known to be induced by cAMP. Collectively these results suggest that OSAP is involved in steroidogenesis, potentially through its ability to maintain mitochondrial abundance and morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadashi Matsumoto
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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Xu Y, Qu X, Zhang X, Luo Y, Zhang Y, Luo Y, Hou K, Liu Y. Midkine positively regulates the proliferation of human gastric cancer cells. Cancer Lett 2009; 279:137-44. [PMID: 19250738 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2009.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2008] [Revised: 01/07/2009] [Accepted: 01/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Midkine (MDK), a heparin-binding growth factor, modulates the proliferation and migration of various cells, is often highly expressed in many malignant tumors, and may act as an oncoprotein. We found that MDK is overexpressed in clinical human gastric cancer tissues relative to its expression in adjacent noncancerous tissues. To further investigate the biological activities of MDK in gastric cancer, we introduced the MDK gene into human SGC7901 gastric cancer cells, where it contributed to the proliferation of SGC7901 cells in vitro and in vivo. Conversely, the knockdown of MDK expression by siRNA resulted in significantly reduced proliferation of BGC823 cells. Our study also shows that MDK activates both the Akt and ERK1/2 pathways and upregulates the expression of several cell-cycle-related proteins, including cyclin A, cyclin D1, Cdk2, Cdk4, and Cdk6, which in part explains the contribution of MDK to gastric cancer cell survival and growth. These results demonstrate that MDK contributes to gastric cancer cell proliferation and suggest that it plays an important role in the development of human gastric cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Xu
- Department of Medical Oncology, The First Hospital, China Medical University, 155 North Nanjing Street, Heping District, Shenyang City 110001, China
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Ishimoto H, Minegishi K, Higuchi T, Furuya M, Asai S, Kim SH, Tanaka M, Yoshimura Y, Jaffe RB. The periphery of the human fetal adrenal gland is a site of angiogenesis: zonal differential expression and regulation of angiogenic factors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93:2402-8. [PMID: 18364383 PMCID: PMC2435642 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2007-2509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Although the inner fetal zone (FZ) of the mid-gestation human fetal adrenal (HFA) produces dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, the function of the outer definitive zone (DZ) remains less clear. We have proposed that the DZ phenotype is that of a pool of progenitor cells, many of which are mitotically active. Recently, we studied HFA expression of a family of vascular endothelial cell-specific angiogenic factors, the angiopoietins (Angs), and demonstrated that Ang2 was localized predominantly in the periphery of the gland. Ang1 stabilizes, whereas Ang2 destabilizes, vessels, increasing responsiveness to angiogenic stimuli such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A and fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-2. OBJECTIVE Our objective was to test the hypothesis that the periphery of the HFA is a site of angiogenesis. DESIGN Studies were conducted involving RNA, frozen sections, and primary cell cultures from midgestation HFAs. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Immunofluorescence, laser capture microdissection, and real-time quantitative RT-PCR were used. RESULTS Double immunostaining demonstrated that proliferating endothelial cells were limited to the DZ and DZ/FZ border. Ang2 mRNA was primarily expressed in the DZ, whereas Ang1 mRNA was primarily in the FZ. VEGF-A and FGF-2 mRNA levels were higher in the DZ. FGF-2 (10 ng/ml) induced Ang2 mRNA by 4-fold in both zones of cells (P < 0.01, at 24 h), but not Ang1 or VEGF-A mRNA. CONCLUSION Data suggest that angiogenesis occurs at the periphery of the HFA. The DZ-predominant expression of Ang2 may be explained, in part, by the parallel pattern of FGF-2 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Ishimoto
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0556, USA
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Mitsiadis TA, Caton J, De Bari C, Bluteau G. The large functional spectrum of the heparin-binding cytokines MK and HB-GAM in continuously growing organs: the rodent incisor as a model. Dev Biol 2008; 320:256-66. [PMID: 18582856 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2008.05.530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2008] [Revised: 04/10/2008] [Accepted: 05/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The heparin binding molecules MK and HB-GAM are involved in the regulation of growth and differentiation of many tissues and organs. Here we analyzed the expression of MK and HB-GAM in the developing mouse incisors, which are continuously growing organs with a stem cell compartment. Overlapping but distinct expression patterns for MK and HB-GAM were observed during all stages of incisor development (initiation, morphogenesis, cytodifferentiation). Both proteins were detected in the enamel knot, a transient epithelial signaling structure that is important for tooth morphogenesis, and the cervical loop where the stem cell niche is located. The functions of MK and HB-GAM were studied in dental explants and organotypic cultures in vitro. In mesenchymal explants, MK stimulated HB-GAM expression and, vice-versa, HB-GAM upregulated MK expression, thus indicating a regulatory loop between these proteins. BMP and FGF molecules also activated expression of both cytokines in mesenchyme. The proliferative effects of MK and HB-GAM varied according to the mesenchymal or epithelial origin of the tissue. Growth, cytodifferentiation and mineralization were inhibited in incisor germs cultured in the presence of MK neutralizing antibodies. These results demonstrate that MK and HB-GAM are involved in stem cells maintenance, cytodifferentiation and mineralization processes during mouse incisor development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thimios A Mitsiadis
- Department of Orofacial Development and Structure, Institute of Oral Biology, ZZMK, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zurich, Plattenstrasse 11, CH 8032 Zurich, Switzerland.
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Abstract
The network regulating human adrenal development is complex. Studies of patients with adrenal insufficiency due to gene mutations established a central role for transcription factors GLI3, SF1 and DAX1 in the initial steps of adrenal formation. Adrenal differentiation seems to depend on adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation and signalling, including biosynthesis and action of POMC, PC1, TPIT, MC2R, MRAP and ALADIN, all of which cause adrenocortical hypoplasia when mutated in humans. Studies of knockout mice revealed many more factors involved in adrenal development; however, in contrast to rodents, in humans several of those factors had no adrenal phenotype when mutated (e.g. WT1, WNT4) or, alternatively, human mutations have not (yet) been identified. Tissue profiling of fetal and adult adrenals suggested 69 genes involved in adrenal development. Among them were genes coding for steroidogenic enzymes, transcription and growth factors, signalling molecules, regulators of cell cycle and angiogenesis, and extracellular matrix proteins; however, the exact role of most of them remains to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Kempná
- Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, University Children's Hospital, University of Berne, Freiburgstrasse 15, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
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Bibliography. Current world literature. Growth and development. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2008; 15:79-101. [PMID: 18185067 DOI: 10.1097/med.0b013e3282f4f084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Hirota Y, Osuga Y, Nose E, Koga K, Yoshino O, Hirata T, Yano T, Tsutsumi O, Sakuma S, Muramatsu T, Taketani Y. The presence of midkine and its possible implication in human ovarian follicles. Am J Reprod Immunol 2007; 58:367-73. [PMID: 17845207 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2007.00522.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Ovarian follicles undergo a dynamic change to provide a mature ovum, and the process involves angiogenesis, follicular cell proliferation and leukocyte recruitment. Midkine (MK) is a heparin-binding growth factor that has angiogenic, mitogenic, and chemotactic activities. In the present study, we investigated the presence of MK and its possible role in human ovarian follicles. METHOD OF STUDY Follicular fluid (FF) and luteinized granulosa cells (LGC) were collected from women undergoing in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer. Expression of MK protein in FF was examined by Western blotting. Concentrations of MK, estradiol and oxygen in FF were measured. 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation assay was performed in LGC. Normal ovarian tissues were obtained surgically and used in in-situ hybridization of MK mRNA. RESULTS The presence of MK protein was verified in FF. MK mRNA was expressed in both granulosa cells and theca cells of large follicles. There is a significant negative correlation between the concentrations of MK and oxygen in FF, and a significant positive correlation between the concentrations of MK and estradiol. MK promoted BrdU uptake in LGC. CONCLUSION The present findings imply that hypoxic condition, a characteristic of growing follicles, associates with the production of MK. Given that MK is involved in granulosa cell proliferation and estradiol production in developing follicles, MK may play a role as a local regulator in the human ovary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasushi Hirota
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
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