1
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SH S, SM H. Should oxidosqualene cyclase in the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway be considered an anti-cancer target? Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:1081151. [PMID: 36582466 PMCID: PMC9792840 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.1081151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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2
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De Velasco MA, Kura Y, Sakai K, Hatanaka Y, Davies BR, Campbell H, Klein S, Kim Y, MacLeod AR, Sugimoto K, Yoshikawa K, Nishio K, Uemura H. Targeting castration-resistant prostate cancer with androgen receptor antisense oligonucleotide therapy. JCI Insight 2019; 4:122688. [PMID: 31484823 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.122688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Sustained therapeutic responses from traditional and next-generation antiandrogen therapies remain elusive in clinical practice due to inherent and/or acquired resistance resulting in persistent androgen receptor (AR) activity. Antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) have the ability to block target gene expression and associated protein products and provide an alternate treatment strategy for castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). We demonstrate the efficacy and therapeutic potential of this approach with a Generation-2.5 ASO targeting the mouse AR in genetically engineered models of prostate cancer. Furthermore, reciprocal feedback between AR and PI3K/AKT signaling was circumvented using a combination approach of AR-ASO therapy with the potent pan-AKT inhibitor, AZD5363. This treatment strategy effectively improved treatment responses and prolonged survival in a clinically relevant mouse model of advanced CRPC. Thus, our data provide preclinical evidence to support a combination strategy of next-generation ASOs targeting AR in combination with AKT inhibition as a potentially beneficial treatment approach for CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco A De Velasco
- Department of Urology and.,Department of Genome Biology, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osakasayama, Osaka, Japan
| | | | - Kazuko Sakai
- Department of Genome Biology, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osakasayama, Osaka, Japan
| | | | - Barry R Davies
- Oncology, IMED Biotech Unit, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Hayley Campbell
- Oncology, IMED Biotech Unit, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Stephanie Klein
- Oncology, IMED Biotech Unit, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Youngsoo Kim
- Department of Antisense Drug Discovery, Ionis Pharmaceuticals, Carlsbad, California, USA
| | - A Robert MacLeod
- Department of Antisense Drug Discovery, Ionis Pharmaceuticals, Carlsbad, California, USA
| | | | - Kazuhiro Yoshikawa
- Research Creation Support Center, Aichi Medical University, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
| | - Kazuto Nishio
- Department of Genome Biology, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osakasayama, Osaka, Japan
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3
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Wahl J, Smieško M. Endocrine Disruption at the Androgen Receptor: Employing Molecular Dynamics and Docking for Improved Virtual Screening and Toxicity Prediction. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E1784. [PMID: 29914135 PMCID: PMC6032383 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19061784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 05/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) is a key target for the development of drugs targeting hormone-dependent prostate cancer, but has also an important role in endocrine disruption. Reliable prediction of the binding of ligands towards the AR is therefore of great relevance. Molecular docking is a powerful computational method for exploring small-ligand binding to proteins. It can be applied for virtual screening experiments but also for predicting molecular initiating events in toxicology. However, in case of AR, there is no antagonist-bound crystal structure yet available. Our study demonstrates that molecular docking approaches are not able to satisfactorily screen for AR antagonists because of this reason. Therefore, we applied Molecular Dynamics simulations to generate antagonist AR structures and showed that this leads to a vast improvement for the docking of AR antagonists. We benchmarked the ability of these antagonist AR structures discriminate between AR antagonists and decoys using an ensemble docking approach and obtained promising results with good enrichment. However, distinguishing AR antagonists from agonists with high confidence is not possible with the current approach alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Wahl
- Molecular Modeling, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Martin Smieško
- Molecular Modeling, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland.
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4
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Muschket M, Di Paolo C, Tindall AJ, Touak G, Phan A, Krauss M, Kirchner K, Seiler TB, Hollert H, Brack W. Identification of Unknown Antiandrogenic Compounds in Surface Waters by Effect-Directed Analysis (EDA) Using a Parallel Fractionation Approach. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:288-297. [PMID: 29211466 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b04994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Among all the nuclear-receptor mediated endocrine disruptive effects, antiandrogenicity is frequently observed in aquatic environments and may pose a risk to aquatic organisms. Linking these effects to responsible chemicals is challenging and a great share of antiandrogenic activity detected in the environment has not been explained yet. To identify drivers of this effect at a hot spot of antiandrogenicity in the German river Holtemme, we applied effect-directed analysis (EDA) including a parallel fractionation approach, a downscaled luciferase reporter gene cell-based anti-AR-CALUX assay and LC-HRMS/MS nontarget screening. We identified and confirmed the highly potent antiandrogen 4-methyl-7-diethylaminocoumarin (C47) and two derivatives in the active fractions. The relative potency of C47 to the reference compound flutamide was over 5.2, whereas the derivatives were less potent. C47 was detected at a concentration of 13.7 μg/L, equal to 71.4 μg flutamide equivalents per liter (FEq/L) in the nonconcentrated water extract that was posing an antiandrogenic activity equal to 45.5 (±13.7 SD) FEq/L. Thus, C47 was quantitatively confirmed as the major cause of the measured effect in vitro. Finally, the antiandrogenic activity of C47 and one derivate was confirmed in vivo in spiggin-gfp Medaka. An endocrine disrupting effect of C47 was observed already at the concentration equal to the concentration in the nonconcentrated water extract, underlining the high risk posed by this compound to the aquatic ecosystem. This is of some concern since C47 is used in a number of consumer products indicating environmental as well as human exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Muschket
- Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ , Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Ecosystem Analysis, RWTH Aachen University , Aachen, Germany
| | - Carolina Di Paolo
- Department of Ecosystem Analysis, RWTH Aachen University , Aachen, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Martin Krauss
- Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ , Leipzig, Germany
| | - Kristina Kirchner
- Department of Ecosystem Analysis, RWTH Aachen University , Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Henner Hollert
- Department of Ecosystem Analysis, RWTH Aachen University , Aachen, Germany
| | - Werner Brack
- Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ , Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Ecosystem Analysis, RWTH Aachen University , Aachen, Germany
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5
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Participation of androgen and its receptor in sex determination of an amphibian species. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0178067. [PMID: 28582396 PMCID: PMC5459561 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0178067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In the Japanese frog Rana (R.) rugosa the androgen receptor (AR) gene on the W chromosome (W-AR) is barely expressed. Previously we showed that incomplete female-to-male sex-reversal occurred in Z-AR transgenic female frogs. To date, however, there is no report showing that AR with androgens can determine genetically programed male sex fate in any vertebrate species. Here, we examined whether AR together with androgens functions as a sex determinant in an amphibian species. METHODS To examine whether complete female-to-male sex-reversal occurs in R. rugosa frogs, we produced AR-transgenic (Tg) and -knockdown (KD) female R. rugosa frogs by the I-SceI meganuclease-mediated gene trap and CRISPR/Cas9 system, respectively. AR-Tg and -KD tadpoles were reared in water containing testosterone (T) at 0 to 7.1 ng/ml. Frozen sections were prepared from the gonads of metamorphosed frogs and immunostained for laminin, Vasa, Pat1a, CYP17 and AR. We also employed PCR analysis to examine Dmrt1, Pat1a and CYP17 expression in the gonads of KD and placebo-KD female frogs. RESULTS Complete female-to-male sex-reversal occurred in the AR-Tg ZW female frogs when a low dosage of T was supplied in the rearing water of tadpoles. However, no sex-reversal was observed in AR-KD ZW female frogs when the gonads were treated with dosages of T high enough to induce complete female-to-male sex-reversal even in wild type frogs. DISCUSSION These results suggest that AR with its androgen ligand functions as a male sex-determinant in the ZW type R. rugosa frogs.
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6
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Sakkiah S, Ng HW, Tong W, Hong H. Structures of androgen receptor bound with ligands: advancing understanding of biological functions and drug discovery. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2016; 20:1267-82. [PMID: 27195510 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2016.1192131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Androgen receptor (AR) is a ligand-dependent transcription factor and a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily. It plays a vital role in male sexual development and regulates gene expression in various tissues, including prostate. Androgens are compounds that exert their biological effects via interaction with AR. Binding of androgens to AR initiates conformational changes in AR that affect binding of co-regulator proteins and DNA. AR agonists and antagonists are widely used in a variety of clinical applications (i.e. hypogonadism and prostate cancer therapy). AREAS COVERED This review provides a close look at structures of AR-ligand complexes and mutations in the receptor that have been revealed, discusses current challenges in the field, and sheds light on future directions. EXPERT OPINION AR is one of the primary targets for the treatment of prostate cancer, as AR antagonists inhibit prostate cancer growth. However, these drugs are not effective for long-term treatment and lead to castration-resistant prostate cancer. The structures of AR-ligand complexes are an invaluable scientific asset that enhances our understanding of biological functions and mechanisms of androgenic and anti-androgenic chemicals as well as promotes the discovery of superior drug candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sugunadevi Sakkiah
- a Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics , National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration , Jefferson , AR , USA
| | - Hui Wen Ng
- a Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics , National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration , Jefferson , AR , USA
| | - Weida Tong
- a Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics , National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration , Jefferson , AR , USA
| | - Huixiao Hong
- a Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics , National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration , Jefferson , AR , USA
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7
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Liang Y, Mafuvadze B, Aebi JD, Hyder SM. Cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitor RO 48-8071 suppresses growth of hormone-dependent and castration-resistant prostate cancer cells. Onco Targets Ther 2016; 9:3223-32. [PMID: 27313468 PMCID: PMC4892832 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s105725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Standard treatment for primary prostate cancer includes systemic exposure to chemotherapeutic drugs that target androgen receptor or antihormone therapy (chemical castration); however, drug-resistant cancer cells generally emerge during treatment, limiting the continued use of systemic chemotherapy. Patients are then treated with more toxic standard therapies. Therefore, there is an urgent need for novel and more effective treatments for prostate cancer. The cholesterol biosynthetic pathway is an attractive therapeutic target for treating endocrine-dependent cancers because cholesterol is an essential structural and functional component of cell membranes as well as the metabolic precursor of endogenous steroid hormones. In this study, we have examined the effects of RO 48-8071 (4′-[6-(allylmethylamino)hexyloxy]-4-bromo-2′-fluorobenzophenone fumarate; Roche Pharmaceuticals internal reference: RO0488071) (RO), which is an inhibitor of 2, 3-oxidosqualene cyclase (a key enzyme in the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway), on prostate cancer cells. Exposure of both hormone-dependent and castration-resistant human prostate cancer cells to RO reduced prostate cancer cell viability and induced apoptosis in vitro. RO treatment reduced androgen receptor protein expression in hormone-dependent prostate cancer cells and increased estrogen receptor β (ERβ) protein expression in both hormone-dependent and castration-resistant prostate cancer cell lines. Combining RO with an ERβ agonist increased its ability to reduce castration-resistant prostate cancer cell viability. In addition, RO effectively suppressed the growth of aggressive castration-resistant human prostate cancer cell xenografts in vivo without any signs of toxicity to experimental animals. Importantly, RO did not reduce the viability of normal prostate cells in vitro. Our study is the first to demonstrate that the cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitor RO effectively suppresses growth of human prostate cancer cells. Our findings suggest that cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors such as RO, when used in combination with commonly used chemotherapeutic drugs or ERβ specific ligands, could represent a novel therapeutic approach to prevent the growth of prostate cancer tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yayun Liang
- Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center and Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Benford Mafuvadze
- Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center and Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Johannes D Aebi
- Medicinal Chemistry, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
| | - Salman M Hyder
- Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center and Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO, USA
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8
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Kandil S, Westwell AD, McGuigan C. 7-Substituted umbelliferone derivatives as androgen receptor antagonists for the potential treatment of prostate and breast cancer. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016; 26:2000-4. [PMID: 26965862 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2016.02.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2015] [Revised: 02/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The clinically used androgen receptor (AR) antagonists (bicalutamide, flutamide and nilutamide) bind with low affinity to AR and can induce escape mechanisms. Furthermore, under AR gene amplification or mutation conditions they demonstrate agonist activity and fail to inhibit AR, causing relapse into castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Discovery of new scaffolds distinct from the 4-cyano/nitro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl group common to currently used antiandrogens is urgently needed to avoid cross-resistance with these compounds. In this study, a series of twenty-nine 7-substituted umbelliferone derivatives was prepared and their antiproliferative activities were evaluated. The most active compound 7a demonstrated submicromolar inhibitory activity in the human prostate cancer cell line (22Rv1); IC50=0.93 μM which represents a 50 fold improvement over the clinical antiandrogen bicalutamide (IC50=46 μM) and a more than 30 fold improvement over enzalutamide (IC50=32 μM). Interestingly, this compound showed even better activity against the human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7); IC50=0.47 μM. Molecular modelling studies provided a plausible theoretical explanation for our findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Kandil
- School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3NB, Wales, United Kingdom.
| | - Andrew D Westwell
- School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3NB, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher McGuigan
- School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3NB, Wales, United Kingdom
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9
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Discovery of novel androgen receptor antagonists: a hybrid approach of pharmacophore-based and docking-based virtual screening. Anticancer Drugs 2015; 26:747-53. [PMID: 25933245 DOI: 10.1097/cad.0000000000000245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) is an attractive target for the treatment of prostate cancer. An integrated pharmacophore-based and docking-based virtual screening approach was applied to identify novel AR antagonists with a distinct scaffold. The candidate compounds were evaluated for their abilities to inhibit prostate cancer cell proliferation and AR target gene prostate-specific antigen gene expression as well as the binding affinity to AR. A potent lead compound, T3, was discovered with the ability to inhibit prostate-specific antigen expression, with a similar binding affinity to AR, and with antiproliferative effects on AR-positive prostate cancer cells similar to that of MDV3100.
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10
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Tian X, He Y, Zhou J. Progress in antiandrogen design targeting hormone binding pocket to circumvent mutation based resistance. Front Pharmacol 2015; 6:57. [PMID: 25852559 PMCID: PMC4371693 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) plays a critical role in the development and progression of prostate cancer (PCa). Current clinically used antiandrogens such as flutamide, bicalutamide, and newly approved enzalutamide mainly target the hormone binding pocket (HBP) of AR. However, over time, drug resistance invariably develops and switches these antiandrogens from antagonist to agonist of the AR. Accumulated evidence indicates that AR mutation is an important cause for the drug resistance. This review will give an overview of the mutation based resistance of the current clinically used antiandrogens and the rational drug design to overcome the resistance, provides a promising strategy for the development of the new generation of antiandrogens targeting HBP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohong Tian
- Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, Mcgill University Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Yang He
- Immunology, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology Chinese Academy of Medical Science Beijing, China
| | - Jinming Zhou
- Immunology, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology Chinese Academy of Medical Science Beijing, China
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11
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Androgen receptor: structure, role in prostate cancer and drug discovery. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2015; 36:3-23. [PMID: 24909511 PMCID: PMC4571323 DOI: 10.1038/aps.2014.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 523] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Androgens and androgen receptors (AR) play a pivotal role in expression of the male phenotype. Several diseases, such as androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) and prostate cancer, are associated with alterations in AR functions. Indeed, androgen blockade by drugs that prevent the production of androgens and/or block the action of the AR inhibits prostate cancer growth. However, resistance to these drugs often occurs after 2–3 years as the patients develop castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). In CRPC, a functional AR remains a key regulator. Early studies focused on the functional domains of the AR and its crucial role in the pathology. The elucidation of the structures of the AR DNA binding domain (DBD) and ligand binding domain (LBD) provides a new framework for understanding the functions of this receptor and leads to the development of rational drug design for the treatment of prostate cancer. An overview of androgen receptor structure and activity, its actions in prostate cancer, and how structural information and high-throughput screening have been or can be used for drug discovery are provided herein.
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12
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Guerrini A, Tesei A, Ferroni C, Paganelli G, Zamagni A, Carloni S, Di Donato M, Castoria G, Leonetti C, Porru M, De Cesare M, Zaffaroni N, Beretta GL, Del Rio A, Varchi G. A New Avenue toward Androgen Receptor Pan-antagonists: C2 Sterically Hindered Substitution of Hydroxy-propanamides. J Med Chem 2014; 57:7263-79. [DOI: 10.1021/jm5005122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Guerrini
- Institute
for the Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity, Italian National Research Council, Via Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
| | - Anna Tesei
- I.R.S.T., Istituto Scientifico Romagnolo per lo Studio e la cura dei Tumori, Via P. Maroncelli, 40, 47014 Meldola, Forlì, Italy
| | - Claudia Ferroni
- Institute
for the Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity, Italian National Research Council, Via Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
| | - Giulia Paganelli
- I.R.S.T., Istituto Scientifico Romagnolo per lo Studio e la cura dei Tumori, Via P. Maroncelli, 40, 47014 Meldola, Forlì, Italy
| | - Alice Zamagni
- I.R.S.T., Istituto Scientifico Romagnolo per lo Studio e la cura dei Tumori, Via P. Maroncelli, 40, 47014 Meldola, Forlì, Italy
| | - Silvia Carloni
- I.R.S.T., Istituto Scientifico Romagnolo per lo Studio e la cura dei Tumori, Via P. Maroncelli, 40, 47014 Meldola, Forlì, Italy
| | - Marzia Di Donato
- Department
of Biochemistry, Biophysics and General Pathology, II University of Naples, Via L. De Crecchio, 7, 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Gabriella Castoria
- Department
of Biochemistry, Biophysics and General Pathology, II University of Naples, Via L. De Crecchio, 7, 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Carlo Leonetti
- Experimental
Chemotherapy Laboratory, Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, Via
delle Messi d’Oro, 156, 00158 Rome, Italy
| | - Manuela Porru
- Experimental
Chemotherapy Laboratory, Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, Via
delle Messi d’Oro, 156, 00158 Rome, Italy
| | - Michelandrea De Cesare
- Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori Milano, Via Amadeo, 42, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Nadia Zaffaroni
- Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori Milano, Via Amadeo, 42, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Giovanni Luca Beretta
- Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori Milano, Via Amadeo, 42, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Alberto Del Rio
- Institute
for the Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity, Italian National Research Council, Via Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
| | - Greta Varchi
- Institute
for the Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity, Italian National Research Council, Via Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
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13
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Mackinnon JAG, Gallastegui N, Osguthorpe DJ, Hagler AT, Estébanez-Perpiñá E. Allosteric mechanisms of nuclear receptors: insights from computational simulations. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2014; 393:75-82. [PMID: 24911885 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2014.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Revised: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The traditional structural view of allostery defines this key regulatory mechanism as the ability of one conformational event (allosteric site) to initiate another in a separate location (active site). In recent years computational simulations conducted to understand how this phenomenon occurs in nuclear receptors (NRs) has gained significant traction. These results have yield insights into allosteric changes and communication mechanisms that underpin ligand binding, coactivator binding site formation, post-translational modifications, and oncogenic mutations. Moreover, substantial efforts have been made in understanding the dynamic processes involved in ligand binding and coregulator recruitment to different NR conformations in order to predict cell/tissue-selective pharmacological outcomes of drugs. They also have improved the accuracy of in silico screening protocols so that nowadays they are becoming part of optimisation protocols for novel therapeutics. Here we summarise the important contributions that computational simulations have made towards understanding the structure/function relationships of NRs and how these can be exploited for rational drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan A G Mackinnon
- Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Barcelona (UB), Baldiri-Reixac 15-21, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nerea Gallastegui
- Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Barcelona (UB), Baldiri-Reixac 15-21, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - David J Osguthorpe
- Shifa Biomedical, 1 Great Valley Parkway, Suite 8, Malvern, PA 19355, USA
| | - Arnold T Hagler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, 701 Lederle, Graduate Research Tower, 710 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003-9336, USA.
| | - Eva Estébanez-Perpiñá
- Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Barcelona (UB), Baldiri-Reixac 15-21, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
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14
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Yuan X, Cai C, Chen S, Chen S, Yu Z, Balk SP. Androgen receptor functions in castration-resistant prostate cancer and mechanisms of resistance to new agents targeting the androgen axis. Oncogene 2014; 33:2815-25. [PMID: 23752196 PMCID: PMC4890635 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2013.235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 261] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2013] [Revised: 04/30/2013] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The metabolic functions of androgen receptor (AR) in normal prostate are circumvented in prostate cancer (PCa) to drive tumor growth, and the AR also can acquire new growth-promoting functions during PCa development and progression through genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT, surgical or medical castration) is the standard treatment for metastatic PCa, but patients invariably relapse despite castrate androgen levels (castration-resistant PCa, CRPC). Early studies from many groups had shown that AR was highly expressed and transcriptionally active in CRPC, and indicated that steroids from the adrenal glands were contributing to this AR activity. More recent studies showed that CRPC cells had increased expression of enzymes mediating androgen synthesis from adrenal steroids, and could synthesize androgens de novo from cholesterol. Phase III clinical trials showing a survival advantage in CRPC for treatment with abiraterone (inhibitor of the enzyme CYP17A1 required for androgen synthesis that markedly reduces androgens and precursor steroids) and for enzalutamide (new AR antagonist) have now confirmed that AR activity driven by residual androgens makes a major contribution to CRPC, and led to the recent Food and Drug Administration approval of both agents. Unfortunately, patients treated with these agents for advanced CRPC generally relapse within a year and AR appears to be active in the relapsed tumors, but the molecular mechanisms mediating intrinsic or acquired resistance to these AR-targeted therapies remain to be defined. This review outlines AR functions that contribute to PCa development and progression, the roles of intratumoral androgen synthesis and AR structural alterations in driving AR activity in CRPC, mechanisms of action for abiraterone and enzalutamide, and possible mechanisms of resistance to these agents.
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MESH Headings
- Androgen Receptor Antagonists/therapeutic use
- Androgens/metabolism
- Animals
- Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/genetics
- Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/metabolism
- Disease Progression
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Humans
- Male
- Prostatic Neoplasms, Castration-Resistant/drug therapy
- Prostatic Neoplasms, Castration-Resistant/genetics
- Prostatic Neoplasms, Castration-Resistant/metabolism
- Receptors, Androgen/chemistry
- Receptors, Androgen/metabolism
- Repressor Proteins/metabolism
- Steroid 17-alpha-Hydroxylase/antagonists & inhibitors
- Steroid 17-alpha-Hydroxylase/metabolism
- Trans-Activators/metabolism
- Transcription, Genetic
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Affiliation(s)
- X Yuan
- Hematology Oncology Division, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - C Cai
- Hematology Oncology Division, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - S Chen
- Hematology Oncology Division, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - S Chen
- Hematology Oncology Division, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Z Yu
- Hematology Oncology Division, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - S P Balk
- Hematology Oncology Division, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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15
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Prostate cancer and bone: the elective affinities. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:167035. [PMID: 24971315 PMCID: PMC4058249 DOI: 10.1155/2014/167035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Revised: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The onset of metastases dramatically changes the prognosis of prostate cancer patients, determining increased morbidity and a drastic fall in survival expectancy. Bone is a common site of metastases in few types of cancer, and it represents the most frequent metastatic site in prostate cancer. Of note, the prevalence of tumor relapse to the bone appears to be increasing over the years, likely due to a longer overall survival of prostate cancer patients. Bone tropism represents an intriguing challenge for researchers also because the preference of prostate cancer cells for the bone is the result of a sequential series of targetable molecular events. Many factors have been associated with the peculiar ability of prostate cancer cells to migrate in bone marrow and to determine mixed osteoblastic/osteolytic lesions. As anticipated by the success of current targeted therapy aimed to block bone resorption, a better understanding of molecular affinity between prostate cancer and bone microenvironment will permit us to cure bone metastasis and to improve prognosis of prostate cancer patients.
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16
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Application of fluorine-containing non-steroidal anti-androgen compounds in treating prostate cancer. J Fluor Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfluchem.2014.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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17
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Gryder BE, Akbashev MJ, Rood MK, Raftery ED, Meyers WM, Dillard P, Khan S, Oyelere AK. Selectively targeting prostate cancer with antiandrogen equipped histone deacetylase inhibitors. ACS Chem Biol 2013; 8:2550-60. [PMID: 24004176 DOI: 10.1021/cb400542w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Diverse cellular processes relevant to cancer progression are regulated by the acetylation status of proteins. Among such processes is chromatin remodeling via histone proteins, controlled by opposing histone deacetylase (HDAC) and histone acetyltransferase (HAT) enzymes. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) show great promise in preclinical cancer models, but clinical trials treating solid tumors have failed to improve patient survival. This is due in part to an inability of HDACi to effectively accumulate in cancerous cells. To address this problem we designed HDACi with secondary pharmacophores to facilitate selective accumulation in malignant cells. We present the first example of HDACi compounds targeted to prostate tumors by equipping them with the additional ability to bind the androgen receptor (AR) with nonsteroidal antiandrogen moieties. Leads among these new dual-acting molecules bind to the AR and halt AR transcriptional activity at lower concentrations than clinical antiandrogens. They inhibit key isoforms of HDAC with low nanomolar potency. Fluorescent microscopy reveals varying degrees of AR nuclear localization in response to these compounds that correlates with their HDAC activity. These biological properties translate into potent anticancer activity against hormone-dependent (AR+) LNCaP and to a lesser extent against hormone-independent (AR-) DU145 prostate cancer, while having greatly reduced toxicity in noncancerous cells. This illustrates that engaging multiple biological targets with a single chemical probe can achieve both potent and cell-type-selective responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berkley E. Gryder
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering & Biosciences, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Dr. NW, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, United States
| | - Michelle J. Akbashev
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering & Biosciences, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Dr. NW, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, United States
| | - Michael K. Rood
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering & Biosciences, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Dr. NW, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, United States
| | - Eric D. Raftery
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering & Biosciences, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Dr. NW, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, United States
| | - Warren M. Meyers
- Department of Cellular
and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z3
| | - Paulette Dillard
- Center
for Cancer Research and Therapeutic Development, Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta, Georgia 30314, United States
| | - Shafiq Khan
- Center
for Cancer Research and Therapeutic Development, Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta, Georgia 30314, United States
| | - Adegboyega K. Oyelere
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering & Biosciences, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Dr. NW, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, United States
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18
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Trendel JA. The hurdle of antiandrogen drug resistance: drug design strategies. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2013; 8:1491-501. [PMID: 24206221 DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2013.855194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer death in men after lung cancer, due to distant metastases. While distant prostate cancer is typically castrate resistant, it is not necessarily androgen independent. For this reason, a review of the literature regarding the pathways involved in androgen signaling and therapeutic regimens to treat distant metastases is beneficial to increasing the survival rate of prostate cancer patients. AREAS COVERED In this article, the author reviews the literature from the past decade covering metastatic hormone refractory prostate cancer with the aim to examine and identify pathways, therapeutic targets and current therapies for treating castrate-resistant disease. As this area is lacking, the author aims to provide the reader with knowledge of the molecular consequences of castrate resistant prostate cancer, the current treatment paradigms and future directions. EXPERT OPINION While there have been advances in the treatment of castrate resistant prostate cancer, only minimal advances have been made in overall survival rate. Due to aberrant mutations and activation in the androgen receptor gene, and the complexity of cell signaling within prostate cancer, the androgen receptor should remain a main target for drug discovery efforts. This author believes that designing compounds that will reduce the activation of the androgen receptor may hold the key to a cure in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill A Trendel
- University of Toledo, Center for Drug Design and Development , 3000 Arlington Ave MS 1015 Toledo, OH 43614 , USA +1 419 383 1536 ;
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19
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Lallous N, Dalal K, Cherkasov A, Rennie PS. Targeting alternative sites on the androgen receptor to treat castration-resistant prostate cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:12496-519. [PMID: 23771019 PMCID: PMC3709796 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140612496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Revised: 05/29/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Recurrent, metastatic prostate cancer continues to be a leading cause of cancer-death in men. The androgen receptor (AR) is a modular, ligand-inducible transcription factor that regulates the expression of genes that can drive the progression of this disease, and as a consequence, this receptor is a key therapeutic target for controlling prostate cancer. The current drugs designed to directly inhibit the AR are called anti-androgens, and all act by competing with androgens for binding to the androgen/ligand binding site. Unfortunately, with the inevitable progression of the cancer to castration resistance, many of these drugs become ineffective. However, there are numerous other regulatory sites on this protein that have not been exploited therapeutically. The regulation of AR activity involves a cascade of complex interactions with numerous chaperones, co-factors and co-regulatory proteins, leading ultimately to direct binding of AR dimers to specific DNA androgen response elements within the promoter and enhancers of androgen-regulated genes. As part of the family of nuclear receptors, the AR is organized into modular structural and functional domains with specialized roles in facilitating their inter-molecular interactions. These regions of the AR present attractive, yet largely unexploited, drug target sites for reducing or eliminating androgen signaling in prostate cancers. The design of small molecule inhibitors targeting these specific AR domains is only now being realized and is the culmination of decades of work, including crystallographic and biochemistry approaches to map the shape and accessibility of the AR surfaces and cavities. Here, we review the structure of the AR protein and describe recent advancements in inhibiting its activity with small molecules specifically designed to target areas distinct from the receptor’s androgen binding site. It is anticipated that these new classes of anti-AR drugs will provide an additional arsenal to treat castration-resistant prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada Lallous
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada.
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20
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Toren PJ, Gleave ME. Evolving landscape and novel treatments in metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer. Asian J Androl 2013; 15:342-9. [PMID: 23584378 PMCID: PMC3739642 DOI: 10.1038/aja.2013.38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2013] [Revised: 02/22/2013] [Accepted: 02/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Treatment options for castrate-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) have advanced in recent years and significantly improved the outlook for patients with this aggressive and lethal disease. Further understanding of the biology of CRPC has led to several new targeted therapies and continues to emphasize the importance of androgen receptor (AR) directed therapy. The treatment landscape is rapidly changing and further biologically rationale, biomarker-based ongoing clinical trials are needed. We review the recent results of major clinical trials in CRPC. New and investigational agents now in clinical evaluation are reviewed including inhibitors of angiogenesis, microtubules, chaperones, AR and intracellular kinases, as well as immunotherapy, radiopharmaceuticals and bone-targeted agents. The recent improvement in prognosis for CRPC brings continued optimism for further improvements. Thoughtful planning of clinical trials and further understanding of the mechanisms of resistance to therapies will allow for continued progress in patient care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Toren
- Department of Urologic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada
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21
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Voet A, Helsen C, Zhang KYJ, Claessens F. The Discovery of Novel Human Androgen Receptor Antagonist Chemotypes Using a Combined Pharmacophore Screening Procedure. ChemMedChem 2013; 8:644-51. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201200549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Revised: 01/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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