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Cohen SP, Caterina MJ, Yang SY, Socolovsky M, Sommer C. Pain in the Context of Sensory Deafferentation. Anesthesiology 2024; 140:824-848. [PMID: 38470115 DOI: 10.1097/aln.0000000000004881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Pain that accompanies deafferentation is one of the most mysterious and misunderstood medical conditions. Prevalence rates for the assorted conditions vary considerably but the most reliable estimates are greater than 50% for strokes involving the somatosensory system, brachial plexus avulsions, spinal cord injury, and limb amputation, with controversy surrounding the mechanistic contributions of deafferentation to ensuing neuropathic pain syndromes. Deafferentation pain has also been described for loss of other body parts (e.g., eyes and breasts) and may contribute to between 10% and upwards of 30% of neuropathic symptoms in peripheral neuropathies. There is no pathognomonic test or sign to identify deafferentation pain, and part of the controversy surrounding it stems from the prodigious challenges in differentiating cause and effect. For example, it is unknown whether cortical reorganization causes pain or is a byproduct of pathoanatomical changes accompanying injury, including pain. Similarly, ascertaining whether deafferentation contributes to neuropathic pain, or whether concomitant injury to nerve fibers transmitting pain and touch sensation leads to a deafferentation-like phenotype can be clinically difficult, although a detailed neurologic examination, functional imaging, and psychophysical tests may provide clues. Due in part to the concurrent morbidities, the physical, psychologic, and by extension socioeconomic costs of disorders associated with deafferentation are higher than for other chronic pain conditions. Treatment is symptom-based, with evidence supporting first-line antineuropathic medications such as gabapentinoids and antidepressants. Studies examining noninvasive neuromodulation and virtual reality have yielded mixed results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven P Cohen
- Departments of Anesthesiology, Neurology, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois; Departments of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation and Anesthesiology, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Michael J Caterina
- Neurosurgery Pain Research Institute and Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Su-Yin Yang
- Psychology Service, Woodlands Health, and Adjunct Faculty, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Singapore
| | - Mariano Socolovsky
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Krawczyk P, Włoch T, Pirowska A, Śliwka A, Piliński R, Maga P, Golec E, Nowobilski R. Phantom phenomena in limb amputees – a review article. REHABILITACJA MEDYCZNA 2018. [DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.8083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Amputation leading to the loss of a body part is associated not only with significant economic costs, but also serious consequences of medical and socio-psychological nature. It is the ultimate means to save a life or improve its quality. The most difficult challenges faced by amputees include accepting changes regarding their own physiognomy and the resulting life restrictions. The patient subjected to amputation is faced with an extremely difficult adaptation process, during which s/he should strive for a maximum degree of independence. Unfortunately, a large group of patients also struggles with various types of sensations and pain located within the lost limb − i.e., so-called phantom phenomena. This is a special group of phenomena of diverse nature, “located” within the lost limb. The occurrence of phantom limb syndrome in amputee patients is extremely common. This problem affects from 45% to even 98% of patients after amputation of one or both upper and lower limbs. The main purpose of this article is to describe phantom phenomena observed in patients after limb amputation in light of current literature. The definition, historical outline, types of phantom phenomena are presented, as well as hypothetical pathomechanisms, factors influencing the frequency and intensity of phantom phenomena and available treatment methods. The work was based on numerous text sources and the author’s own experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paweł Krawczyk
- Zakład Rehabilitacji w Chorobach Wewnętrznych, Instytut Fizjoterapii, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu, UJCM / Institute of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, Krakow, Poland
| | - Tomasz Włoch
- Zakład Rehabilitacji w Chorobach Wewnętrznych, Katedra Rehabilitacji Klinicznej, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie / Department of Rehabilitation in Internal Diseases, University of Physical Education, Krakow, Poland
| | - Aneta Pirowska
- Institut Robert Merle d'Aubigné, Artificial Limb Centre (Centre de Rééducation et d'Appareillage), Valenton, France
| | - Agnieszka Śliwka
- Zakład Rehabilitacji w Chorobach Wewnętrznych, Instytut Fizjoterapii, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu, UJCM / Institute of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, Krakow, Poland
| | - Rafał Piliński
- Zakład Rehabilitacji w Chorobach Wewnętrznych, Instytut Fizjoterapii, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu, UJCM / Institute of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, Krakow, Poland
| | - Paweł Maga
- Klinika Angiologii UJCM / Department of Angiology, Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, Krakow, Poland
| | - Edward Golec
- Zakład Rehabilitacji w Ortopedii, Katedra Rehabilitacji Klinicznej, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie / Department of Rehabilitation in Orthopaedics, Faculty of Motor Rehabilitation, University School of Physical Education, Krakow, Poland
| | - Roman Nowobilski
- Zakład Rehabilitacji w Chorobach Wewnętrznych, Instytut Fizjoterapii, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu, UJCM / Institute of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, Krakow, Poland
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Cruz E, Dangaria HT. Phantom limb pain from spinal sarcoma: a case report. PM R 2014; 5:629-32. [PMID: 23880049 DOI: 10.1016/j.pmrj.2013.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Revised: 03/14/2013] [Accepted: 03/16/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Phantom limb pain is a frequent sequela of amputation. A high prevalence of residual limb pain and back pain also exists among amputees. We present a case of a new-onset severe phantom limb pain resulting from a metastatic spinal mass in an 81-year-old patient with a history of malignant sarcoma and an old hip disarticulation amputation. The metastatic lesion, upon imaging, was found to involve the L3 vertebra and caused moderate compression of the thecal sac on the right and severe right lateral recess stenosis. After the mass was resected, the patient's phantom limb pain resolved. Our case report demonstrates that spinal metastatic pathologies may be a cause of phantom limb pain and should be included in the differential diagnosis of new-onset phantom limb pain or a change in phantom limb pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto Cruz
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Temple University Hospital, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Pirowska A, Wloch T, Nowobilski R, Plaszewski M, Hocini A, Ménager D. Phantom phenomena and body scheme after limb amputation: A literature review. Neurol Neurochir Pol 2014; 48:52-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pjnns.2013.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Operative strategies in ventrally and ventrolaterally located spinal meningiomas and review of the literature. Neurosurg Rev 2013; 36:611-8; discussion 618-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s10143-013-0462-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2012] [Revised: 11/08/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Abstract
Postamputation pain (PAP) is highly prevalent after limb amputation but remains an extremely challenging pain condition to treat. A large part of its intractability stems from the myriad pathophysiological mechanisms. A state-of-art understanding of the pathophysiologic basis underlying postamputation phenomena can be broadly categorized in terms of supraspinal, spinal, and peripheral mechanisms. Supraspinal mechanisms involve somatosensory cortical reorganization of the area representing the deafferentated limb and are predominant in phantom limb pain and phantom sensations. Spinal reorganization in the dorsal horn occurs after deafferentataion from a peripheral nerve injury. Peripherally, axonal nerve damage initiates inflammation, regenerative sprouting, and increased "ectopic" afferent input which is thought by many to be the predominant mechanism involved in residual limb pain or neuroma pain, but may also contribute to phantom phenomena. To optimize treatment outcomes, therapy should be individually tailored and mechanism based. Treatment modalities include injection therapy, pharmacotherapy, complementary and alternative therapy, surgical therapy, and interventions aimed at prevention. Unfortunately, there is a lack of high quality clinical trials to support most of these treatments. Most of the randomized controlled trials in PAP have evaluated medications, with a trend for short-term Efficacy noted for ketamine and opioids. Evidence for peripheral injection therapy with botulinum toxin and pulsed radiofrequency for residual limb pain is limited to very small trials and case series. Mirror therapy is a safe and cost-effective alternative treatment modality for PAP. Neuromodulation using implanted motor cortex stimulation has shown a trend toward effectiveness for refractory phantom limb pain, though the evidence is largely anecdotal. Studies that aim to prevent PA P using epidural and perineural catheters have yielded inconsistent results, though there may be some benefit for epidural prevention when the infusions are started more than 24 hours preoperatively and compared with nonoptimized alternatives. Further investigation into the mechanisms responsible for and the factors associated with the development of PAP is needed to provide an evidence-based foundation to guide current and future treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene Hsu
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Steven P Cohen
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and Uniformed Services, University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
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