Influence of Levobupivacaine Regional Scalp Block on Hemodynamic Stability, Intra- and Postoperative Opioid Consumption in Supratentorial Craniotomies: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Ultrasound-guided lesser occipital nerve combined with great auricular nerve block for vestibular schwannoma craniotomy via a suboccipital retrosigmoid approach: a prospective, double-blind randomized controlled trial

PURPOSE

This aim of this study was to investigate the analgesic efficacy and safety of lesser occipital nerve combined with great auricular nerve block (LOGAB) for craniotomy via a suboccipital retrosigmoid approach.

METHODS

Patients underwent vestibular schwannoma resection via a suboccipital retrosigmoid approach were randomly assigned to receive ultrasound-guided unilateral LOGAB with 5 ml of 0.5% ropivacaine (LOGAB group) or normal saline (NSB group). Numeric rating scale (NRS) scores at rest and motion were recorded within 48 h after surgery. Mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), opioid consumption and other variables were measured secondly.

RESULTS

Among 59 patients who were randomized, 30 patients received ropivacaine, and 29 patients received saline. NRS scores at rest (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 3.2 ± 0.8, P = 0.002) and at motion (2.2 ± 0.7 vs. 3.2 ± 0.6, P = 0.013) of LOGAB group were lower than those of NSB group within 48 h after surgery. NRS scores of motion were comparable except for 6th and 12th hour (P < 0.05) in the LOGAB group. In LOGAB group, MAP decreased significantly during incision of skin and dura (P < 0.05) and intraoperative opoid consumption was remarkably reduced (P < 0.01). Postoperative remedial analgesia was earlier in the NSB group (P < 0.001). No patients reported any adverse events.

CONCLUSION

Among patients undergoing craniotomy for vestibular schwannoma via a suboccipital retrosigmoid approach, LOGAB may be a promising treatment for perioperative analgesia and has the potential to maintain intraoperative hemodynamic stability.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

Chictr.org.cn ChiCTR2000038798.

Nerve Blocks for Craniotomy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Postcraniotomy headache (PCH) is a common adverse event and can lead to various complications and decreased quality of life.

RECENT FINDINGS

To reduce postcraniotomy pain and associated complications, a multimodal pain therapy including analgesics, analgesic adjuncts, and regional anesthesia is essential. The use of opioids should be minimized to facilitate prompt postoperative neurosurgical assessment. Here, we provide an update on the latest evidence regarding the role of scalp nerve blocks in the pain management of patients undergoing craniotomy procedure. Nerve blocks are effective in alleviating postoperative pain after craniotomy. Scalp blocks contribute to lower pain levels and less opioid consumption in the first 48 h following surgery. Moreover, there is a significant decrease in patients suffering from PONV among patients who receive scalp block.

Regional Anesthesia Techniques in Modern Neuroanesthesia Practice: A Narrative Review of the Clinical Evidence

Neurosurgical procedures are often associated with significant postoperative pain that is both underrecognized and undertreated. Given the potentially undesirable side effects associated with general anesthesia and with various pharmacological analgesic regimens, regional anesthetic techniques have gained in popularity as alternatives for providing both anesthesia and analgesia for the neurosurgical patient. The aim of this narrative review is to present an overview of the regional techniques that have been incorporated and continue to be incorporated into modern neuroanesthesia practice, presenting in a comprehensive way the evidence, where available, in support of such practice for the neurosurgical patient.

Predicting the optimal concentration of remifentanil for skull pin fixation with hemodynamic and analgesia nociception index monitoring

Inadequate antinociception during skull pin fixation may cause hemodynamic instability in intracranial surgery. The optimal concentration of remifentanil to provide adequate antinociception and stable hemodynamics during skull pin fixation under analgesia nociception index monitoring is unknown. This study is to assess the 90% effective concentration of remifentanil for skull pin fixation under hemodynamic and analgesia nociception index monitoring. Twenty-six patients were enrolled for intracranial surgery, anesthesia was induced and maintained under total intravenous anesthesia using target-controlled infusion for remifentanil and propofol under analgesia nociception index and bispectral index monitoring. Skull pin fixation was performed at different effect-site concentrations of remifentanil required for Dixon's up-and-down method with a step size of 0.5 ng/ml under bispectral index 40-60. Inadequate antinociception is defined when either ANI < 30 or > 20% in hemodynamic changes from baseline (e.g. heart rate > 100 beats/min, or blood pressure > 180/100 mmHg) and the effect-site concentration of remifentanil is considered as failure. It is considered success as ANI > 30 and < 20% hemodynamic changes from baseline simultaneously. Seven pairs of failure/success were used for probit analysis. The 90% effective concentration of remifentanil for skull pin fixation with adequate antinociception and hemodynamic stability was 4.7 ng/ml.

Scalp Nerve Block, Local Anesthetic Infiltration, and Postoperative Pain After Craniotomy: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis of Randomized Trials

The most efficacious methods for controlling postoperative pain in craniotomy remain unknown. A systematic review and network meta-analysis were performed to compare the efficacies of different strategies of scalp nerve block (SNB), scalp infiltration (SI), and control in patients undergoing craniotomy. MEDLINE, Embase, and CENTRAL databases were searched for randomized controlled trials. The primary outcome was postoperative 24-hour pain score, and the secondary outcome was opioid consumption within the first 24 hour after surgery. The effect was estimated using the between-group mean difference and ranked using the surface under the cumulative ranking curve (SUCRA) score. Twenty-four randomized trials were identified for inclusion. SNB using ropivacaine reduced postoperative 24-hour pain score when compared with control (mean difference [95% credible interval], -2.04 [-3.13, -0.94]; low quality), and when compared with SI using ropivacaine (-1.77 [-3.04, -0.51]; low quality) or bupivacaine (-1.96 [-3.65, -0.22]; low quality). SNB using ropivacaine was likely the most efficacious method for pain control (SUCRA, 91%), and also reduced opioid consumption within the first postoperative 24 hours as compared with control (mean difference [95% credible interval], -11.91 [-22.42, -1.4]; low quality). SNB using bupivacaine, lidocaine, and epinephrine combined, and SNB using ropivacaine, were likely the most efficacious methods for opioid consumption reduction (SUCRA, 88% and 80%, respectively). In summary, different methods of SNB / SI seem to have different efficacies after craniotomy. SNB using ropivacaine may be superior to other methods for postcraniotomy pain control; however, the overall quality of evidence was low.

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials for Scalp Block in Craniotomy

BACKGROUND

Scalp block is regional anesthetic injection along nerves innervating the cranium. Scalp blocks for craniotomy may decrease postoperative pain and opioid consumption. Benefits may extend beyond the anesthetic period.

OBJECTIVE

To analyze evidence for scalp block on postoperative pain and opioid use.

METHODS

This systematic review and meta-analysis, Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews registration (CRD42022308048), included Ovid Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online, Embase, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials inception through February 9, 2022. Only randomized controlled trials were included. We excluded studies not reporting either main outcome. Duplicate reviewers performed study selection, risk of bias assessment, data extraction, and evidence certainty Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation appraisal. Main outcomes were postoperative pain by visual analog scale within 72 hours and opioid consumption as morphine milligram equivalent (MME) within 48 hours.

RESULTS

Screening filtered 955 studies to 23 trials containing 1532 patients. Risk of bias was overall low. Scalp block reduced postoperative pain at 2 through 72 hours, visual analog scale mean differences of 0.79 to 1.40. Opioid requirements were reduced at 24 hours by 16.52 MME and 48 hours by 15.63 MME.

CONCLUSION

Scalp block reduces postoperative pain at 2 through 48 hours and may reduce pain at 72 hours. Scalp block likely reduces opioid consumption within 24 hours and may reduce opioid consumption to 48 hours. The clinical utility of these differences should be interpreted within the context of modest absolute reductions, overall care optimization, and patient populations. This is the first level 1A evidence to evaluate scalp block efficacy in craniotomy.

The Efficacy of Scalp Nerve Block in Postoperative Pain Management after Microvascular Decompression: A Randomized Clinical Trial

The scalp nerve block, created by injecting local anesthetics around the scalp nerves, is reported to effectively reduce pain after surgery. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of scalp nerve block in patients with hemifacial spasm (HFS) undergoing microvascular decompression (MVD). Seventy-four patients who underwent MVD for HFS were enrolled. The block group received scalp nerve block with 0.5% ropivacaine before surgery. The primary outcome was cumulative dose of rescue analgesics 24 h postoperatively. The secondary outcomes were included pain scores, postoperative antiemetic consumption, and Quality of Recovery-15 scale. The cumulative dose of rescue analgesics at 24 h postoperatively was not significantly different between the two groups (4.80 ± 3.64 mg vs. 5.92 ± 3.95 mg, p = 0.633). However, the pain score was significantly reduced in the block group at 6, 12, and 24 h postoperatively. Postoperative antiemetic consumption was lower in the block group than the control group at 12 h. There were no significant differences between the two groups for other secondary outcomes. In MVD for HFS, a preoperative scalp nerve block might reduce postoperative pain in the early postoperative period, but a larger study using a multimodal approach is needed to confirm the efficacy of a scalp block.

Prevention of Post-Operative Pain after Elective Brain Surgery: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Background and Objective: To analyze the effects of several drug for pain prevention in adults undergoing craniotomy for elective brain surgery. Material and Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines. The inclusion criteria were limited to randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that evaluated the effectiveness of pharmacological treatments for preventing post-operative pain in adults (aged 18 years or older) undergoing craniotomies. The main outcome measures were represented by the mean differences in validated pain intensity scales administered at 6 h, 12 h, 24 h and 48 h post-operatively. The pooled estimates were calculated using random forest models. The risk of bias was evaluated using the RoB2 revised tool, and the certainty of evidence was assessed according to the GRADE guidelines. Results: In total, 3359 records were identified through databases and registers' searching. After study selection, 29 studies and 2376 patients were included in the meta-analysis. The overall risk of bias was low in 78.5% of the studies included. The pooled estimates of the following drug classes were provided: NSAIDs, acetaminophen, local anesthetics and steroids for scalp infiltration and scalp block, gabapentinoids and agonists of adrenal receptors. Conclusions: High-certainty evidence suggests that NSAIDs and acetaminophen may have a moderate effect on reducing post-craniotomy pain 24 h after surgery compared to control and that ropivacaine scalp block may have a bigger impact on reducing post-craniotomy pain 6 h after surgery compared to control. Moderate-certainty evidence indicates that NSAIDs may have a more remarkable effect on reducing post-craniotomy pain 12 h after surgery compared to control. No moderate-to-high-certainty evidence indicates effective treatments for post-craniotomy pain prevention 48 h after surgery.

Dexmedetomidine as an adjuvant to scalp block in patients undergoing elective craniotomy: A prospective randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

Regional techniques minimize anesthetic requirements and their effects may be beneficial. There is a lack of consensus and evidence concerning alternative analgesia strategies for cranial neurosurgery. This study was designed to evaluate the effect of scalp block with or without dexmedetomidine combined with general anesthesia on hemodynamic stability, opioid consumption and postoperative pain in patients undergoing elective craniotomy.

METHODS

One hundred five patients undergoing elective craniotomy for tumor dissection were randomly divided into three groups to receive scalp block as an adjuvant to general anesthesia: with either 40 ml ropivacaine 0.5 % (Group R), 40 ml ropivacaine 0.5 % plus dexmedetomidine 1 μg/kg (Group RD) or 40 ml saline as a placebo (Group C). After a standard induction sequence using propofol, fentanyl and a single dose of rocuronium, patients were intubated. Bilateral scalp block was given immediately after induction. Anesthesia was maintained with propofol and remifentanil infusion. Five minutes before head pinning scalp block was performed by blocking the supraorbital, supratrochlear, auriculotemporal, occipital, and postauricular branches of the greater auricular nerves. All patients were monitored with electrocardiogram, invasive blood pressure, pulse oximetry and BIS monitoring. Primary outcomes measures were overall hemodynamic variables during surgery and intravenous fentanyl and remifentanil consumption. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR) were recorded at seven time-points: scalp block (T1-baseline), pin fixation (T2), skin incision (T3), drilling (T4), dura matter incision (T5), dura matter closure (T6) and skin closure (T7). For all time points it was recorded the mean value after 3 consecutive measures with 5 min interval. Secondary outcome was postoperative pain intensity using visual analog scale 24 and 48 h after surgery. VAS scores, fentanyl and remifentanil were evaluated using Kruskal-Wallis test. MAP and HR were compared by One-Way repeated measures Anova (GLMM) using time as random efect and by One-Way Anova using time as fxed efect.

RESULTS

Mean arterial pressure was significant lower at skin closure compared to baseline in group R (p < 0,001) and in group RD (p < 0,001). Patients in group RD showed significant lower heart rate at dura matter incision, dura matter closure and skin closure compared to baseline, pin fixation and skin incision time points (p < 0,001) and reported significantly less heart rate than group C (p < 0,001) and group R (p < 0,001) during dura matter incision, dura matter closure and skin closure time points. Patients in group RD receive significant lower fentanyl than group R (p < 0,01). The intraoperative consumption of remifentanil was significant higher in control group compared to group R (p < 0,01) and to group RD (p < 0,001). Additionally, remifentanil consumption was significant lower in group RD as compared to group R (p < 0,001). Postoperative pain had no statistically differences between the three groups at 24 h and 48 h after craniotomy (Preop VAS: p = 0,915, VAS 24: p = 0,284, VAS 48, p = 0,385). No adverse effects were noted.

CONCLUSION

Our study indicated that addition of dexmedetomidine to scalp block with ropivacaine 0.5% provided significantly better perioperative hemodynamic stability during elective craniotomy. Moreover, scalp block with or without dexmedetomidine reduced fentanyl and remifentanil consumption, but it didn't significantly prolonged analgesia in patients undergoing elective craniotomy.

Association of scalp block with intraoperative hemodynamic profiles and postoperative pain outcomes at 24-48 hours following craniotomy: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies

BACKGROUND

Despite the demonstrated analgesic efficacy of scalp block (SB) during the immediate postoperative period, the impact of SB on pain outcomes at postoperative 24 and 48 h in adults receiving craniotomy remains unclear.

METHODS

The databases of Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Central Register were searched from inception to January 2022 for available randomized controlled trials (RCTs). The primary outcome was the severity of pain at postoperative 24 and 48 h, while the secondary outcomes included morphine consumption, hemodynamic profiles after surgical incision and in the postanesthesia care unit (PACU), and risk of postoperative nausea/vomiting (PONV).

RESULTS

Meta-analysis of 12 studies revealed a lower pain score [MD = -0.83, p = 0.03, 375 patients, certainty of evidence (COE): low] and morphine consumption (MD = -9.21 mg, p = 0.03, 246 patients, COE: low) at postoperative 24 h, while there were no differences in these pain outcomes at postoperative 48 h (COE: low). The use of SB significantly decreased intraoperative heart rate (MD = -10.9 beats/min, p < 0.0001, 189 patients, COE: moderate) and mean blood pressure (MD = -13.02 mmHg, p < 0.00001, 189 patients, COE: moderate) after surgical incision, but these hemodynamic profiles were comparable in both groups in the PACU setting. There was also no difference in the risk of PONV between the two groups (RR = 0.78, p = 0.2, 299 patients, COE: high).

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis demonstrated that scalp block not only provided hemodynamic stability immediately after surgical incision but was also associated with a lower pain score and morphine consumption at postoperative 24 h. Further studies are needed for elucidation of its findings.

The effectiveness of scalp nerve block on hemodynamic response in craniotomy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials

INTRODUCTION

Strategies that blunt noxious stimuli and stabilize hemodynamics may reduce perioperative cardiovascular complications and enhance recovery after craniotomy.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

Our systematic literature review and meta-analysis investigated whether scalp nerve block (SNB) reduces the acute hemodynamic response compared with non-SNB (scalp infiltration or control) in adult patients undergoing elective craniotomy. We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL, and two Chinese databases for randomized trials. Primary outcomes included mean arterial pressure and heart rate during skull pin insertion and surgical incision in craniotomy. Secondary outcomes included incidence of hypertension and dosage of intraoperative analgesic opioids used. Random-effects models were used for meta-analyses.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

SNB significantly reduced the mean arterial pressure (mean difference: -14.00 mmHg; 95% confidence interval [CI]: -19.71 to -8.28) and heart rate (mean difference: -11.55 beat/min; 95% CI: -19.31 to -3.80), when compared with non-SNB during skull pin insertion. A similar trend was observed during skin incisions (SNB vs. non-SNB, mean difference in mean arterial pressure: -9.46 mmHg; 95% CI: -14.53 to -4.38; mean difference in heart rate: -9.34 beat/min; 95% CI: -15.40 to -3.28). Subgroup analysis showed that, compared with scalp infiltration, SNB reduced mean arterial pressure and heart during pin insertion but not during skin incisions. SNB also reduced the incidence of intraoperative hypertension, but no difference was observed in intraoperative opioid consumption when compared with non-SNB.

CONCLUSIONS

SNB alleviated the craniotomy-associated hemodynamic response. SNB may be superior to scalp infiltration in maintaining hemodynamic stability during pin insertion. However, high-quality trials are still needed to provide more conclusive evidence.

Scalp block for postoperative pain after craniotomy: A meta-analysis of randomized control trials

Background

Postoperative pain after craniotomy is an important clinical concern because it might lead to brain hyperemia and elevated intracranial pressure. Considering the side effects of opioid, several studies have been conducted to investigate the effect of local anesthetics, especially the scalp block, on postoperative pain. However, the strength of evidence supporting this practice for postoperative pain after craniotomy was unclear and the best occasion of scalp block was also not identified. Therefore, we conducted a meta-analysis to evaluate the efficacy, safety, and the best occasion of scalp block for postoperative pain after craniotomy.

Methods

PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library databases from database inception to October 10, 2021 were searched for all randomized controlled trials evaluating the effect of scalp block on postoperative pain after craniotomy. Data were assessed by StataMP 16 software.

Results

A total of 12 studies were included. A random-effect model was used to analyze all data. Patients under scalp block earned fewer scores than the non-scalp block group in visual analogue scale at the very early period (MD = −1.97, 95% CI = −3.07 to −0.88), early period (MD = −1.84, 95% CI = −2.95 to −0.73) and intermediate period (MD = −1.16, 95% CI = −1.84 to −0.49). Scalp block could also significantly prolong the time of the first request of rescue analgesia and reduce the use of additional analgesics without a significant difference in the incidence of complications. Subgroup analysis showed there was no significant difference in analgesia effect between pre-incision scalp block and post-incision scalp block in all periods.

Conclusion

Scalp block could lead to lower pain intensity scores, more time of the first request of rescue analgesia, and fewer analgesic drugs applied in the first 12 h after craniotomy. There was no significant difference between pre-incision and post-incision scalp block in the occurrence and severity of postoperative pain.

Effect of scalp nerve block with ropivacaine on postoperative pain in pediatric patients undergoing craniotomy: A randomized controlled trial

Background

Scalp nerve block (SNB) is widely used for postoperative pain control, intraoperative hemodynamic control, and opioid-sparing in adult craniotomies. However, there are few studies of SNB in pediatric patients undergoing craniotomy. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effect of SNB on postoperative pain, intraoperative hemodynamic stability, and narcotic consumption in pediatric craniotomy under general anesthesia.

Methods

This trial is a single-center, prospective, randomized, and double-blind study. A total of 50 children aged between 2 and 12 years who are undergoing elective brain tumor surgery will be randomly allocated in a 1:1 ratio to receive either 0.2% ropivacaine for SNB (group SNB, intervention group, n = 25) or the same volume of saline (group Ctrl, control group, n = 25). The primary outcome was to assess the score of postoperative pain intensity at time 1, 4, 8, 12, 24, and 48 h postoperatively using the FLACC score method. Secondary outcomes were to record intraoperative hemodynamic variables (MAP and HR) during skull-pin fixation, skin incision and end of skin closure, intraoperative total consumption of remifentanil and propofol, postoperative opioid consumption, and the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting.

Results

Fifty patients were analyzed (n = 25 in SNB group; n = 25 in control group). Compared to the control group, postoperative pain intensity was significantly relieved in the SNB group up to 8 h post-operatively. In addition, SNB provided good intraoperative hemodynamic stability, reduced intraoperative overall propofol and remifentanil consumption rate, and postoperative fentanyl consumption compared to the control group. However, the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting was not different between SNB and the control group.

Conclusions

In pediatric craniotomies, SNB with 0.2% ropivacaine provides adequate postoperative pain control and good intraoperative hemodynamic stability during noxious events compared to the control group.

Clinical trial registration

Chinese Clinical Trial Registry [No: ChiCTR2100050594], Prospective registration.