Advances and innovations in brain arteriovenous malformation surgery

The difference of functional MR imaging in evaluating outcome of patients with diffuse and compact brain arteriovenous malformation

Microsurgical resection is an effective method to treat brain arteriovenous malformations (BAVMs). Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) can evaluate the spatial relationship of nidus and eloquent. Diffuse BAVMs are related to poor outcomes postoperatively. The role of fMRI in evaluating outcomes in patients with different nidus types remains unclear. BAVM patients received microsurgical resection were included from a prospective, multicenter cohort study. All patients underwent fMRI evaluation preoperatively and were regularly followed up postoperatively. Diffuse BAVM is radiologically identified as nidus containing normal brain tissue interspersing between malformed vessels. Lesion-to-eloquent distance (LED) was calculated based on the relationship between nidus and eloquent. The primary outcome was 180-day unfavorable neurological status postoperatively. The risk of primary outcome was investigated within different BAVM nidus types. The LED's performance to predict poor outcome was evaluated using area under curve (AUC). 346 BAVM patients were included in this study. 93 (26.9%) patients were found to have a 180-day unfavorable outcome. Multivariate logistic analysis demonstrated LED (odd ratio [OR], 0.44; 0.34-0.57; P < 0.001) and mRS at admission (OR, 2.59; 1.90-3.54; P < 0.001) as factors of unfavorable outcome. Subgroup analysis showed LED and mRS at admission as factors of unfavorable outcome for patients with compact BAVMs (all P < 0.05), but not for patients with diffuse BAVMs. Subsequent analysis showed that LED performed poorly to predict the unfavorable outcome for patients with diffuse BAVMs, compared with patients with compact BAVMs (AUC as 0.69 vs. 0.86, P < 0.05). A larger cutoff value of LED to unfavorable outcome was found in patients with diffuse BAVMs (15 mm) compared with patients with compact BAVMs (4.7 mm). Usage of LED to evaluate postoperative outcome of patients with diffuse BAVMs differs from its use in patients with compact BAVMs. Specific assessment strategy considering BAVM nidus types could help improve patients' outcome. MITASREAVM cohort (unique identifier: NCT02868008, https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT02868008?term=NCT02868008&rank=1 ).

Quantitative Assessment of Hemodynamics Associated With Embolization Degree in Brain Arteriovenous Malformations

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Grading systems, including the novel brain arteriovenous malformation endovascular grading scale (NBAVMES) and arteriovenous malformation embocure score (AVMES), predict embolization outcomes based on arteriovenous malformation (AVM) morphological features. The influence of hemodynamics on embolization outcomes remains unexplored. In this study, we investigated the relationship between hemodynamics and embolization outcomes.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study of 99 consecutive patients who underwent transarterial embolization at our institution between 2012 and 2018. Hemodynamic features of AVMs were derived from pre-embolization digital subtraction angiography sequences using quantitative digital subtraction angiography. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the significant factors associated with embolization outcomes.

RESULTS

Complete embolization (CE) was achieved in 17 (17.2%) patients, and near-complete embolization was achieved in 18 (18.2%) patients. A slower transnidal relative velocity (TRV, odds ratio [OR] = 0.71, P = .002) was significantly associated with CE. Moreover, higher stasis index of the drainage vein (OR = 16.53, P = .023), shorter transnidal time (OR = 0.15, P = .013), and slower TRV (OR = 0.9, P = .049) were significantly associated with complete or near-complete embolization (C/nCE). The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for predicting CE was 0.87 for TRV, 0.72 for NBAVMES scores (ρ = 0.287, P = .004), and 0.76 for AVMES scores. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for predicting C/nCE was 0.77 for TRV, 0.61 for NBAVMES scores, and 0.75 for AVMES scores. Significant Spearman correlation was observed between TRV and NBAVMES scores and AVMES scores (ρ = 0.512, P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Preoperative hemodynamic factors have the potential to predict the outcomes of AVM embolization. A higher stasis index of the drainage vein, slower TRV, and shorter transnidal time may indicate a moderate blood flow status or favorable AVM characteristics that can potentially facilitate embolization.

Application of 3D Slicer Combined With Simple Coordinate Method in Operation of Cerebral Arteriovenous Malformations in Functional Areas

The authors report a case of intracranial arteriovenous malformation in functional areas, initially presenting with symptomatic epilepsy was surgically excised by the Neurosurgery Department of our hospital. The patient's head computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and digital subtraction angiography examination suggested intracranial arteriovenous malformations in the left frontal functional area. A preoperative 3D-reconstruction technique was used to reconstruct the malformed vascular mass, supplying arteries, draining veins, and precise surgical resection was performed. Postoperative pathology indicated vascular malformation. No seizures occurred after surgery. There was no further neurological impairment. Preoperative use of image postprocessing techniques can facilitate precise surgical resection of brain arteriovenous malformations. Three-dimensional Slicer in cerebral arteriovenous malformations in functional areas not only shortened the preoperative planning time but also improved the efficiency of the surgery. Reduce the incidence of postoperative complications. It is helpful for further popularization and application.

Application of diffusion tensor-based tractography in treatment of brain arteriovenous malformations: a systematic review

There is no systematic review investigating the utility of Diffusion tensor-based tractography findings for treating brain arteriovenous malformations (bAVMs). This systematic review aims to investigate the outcomes following bAVM treatment when tractography data is incorporated into treatment planning. PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Cochrane Library, were searched for published studies. Prospective or retrospective studies involving at least one patient with confirmed bAVM and available data on tractography and clinical outcomes were included. A total of 16 studies were eligible for this review, consisting of 298 patients. 48.2% of patients were female. The mean age of the patients was 27.5 years (range: 5-77). Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) and microsurgical resection each were the treatment of choice in eight studies, respectively. Two-hundred forty-eight patients underwent SRS as the primary treatment, while microsurgery was used to resect the bAVMs in 50 patients. The corticospinal tract, optic pathway, and arcuate fasciculus were the most widely investigated white matter tracts. Tractography disruption and failure frequencies were 19.1% and 1.8%, respectively. The pooled proportions (95% CI) of obliteration rates were 88.78% (73.51-95.76) for microsurgery and 51.45% (13-17-88.10) following SRS. Treatment-related non-hemorrhagic complications rates occurred in 24.2% and 9.9% of patients who underwent microsurgical resection and SRS, respectively. Tractography findings can contribute to providing a more accurate dosimetry analysis of functional white matter tracts at risk prior to SRS and minimizing the surgical morbidity following microsurgical resection.

Effect of Targeted Embolization on Seizure Outcomes in Patients with Brain Arteriovenous Malformations

BACKGROUND

Seizures are one of the most debilitating manifestations of brain arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). This study aimed to evaluate the effect of curative embolization on brain AVM patients presenting with seizures.

METHODS

The records of patients who underwent embolization for brain AVM from January 2012 to December 2020 were evaluated and patients presenting with seizures were interviewed. Patient responses were evaluated according to the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) and Engel classifications. Statistical analyses of factors associated with seizure outcomes and complications were performed using ANOVA and Fischer's exact tests.

RESULTS

The mean age of the participants was 35.2 ± 10.7 years. More than 80% of the patients received no or suboptimal dosages of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) prior to embolization. Positive seizure dynamics were observed in 50% of the patients post-procedure. A correlation was found between length of seizures in anamnesis and outcomes of both Engel and ILAE score, where shorter length was associated with better outcomes. Post-embolization hemorrhage was associated with initial presentation with hemorrhage.

CONCLUSIONS

The embolization of brain AVMs had a positive effect on seizure presentation and a relatively low prevalence of complications. However, the results of the study are obscured by inadequate AED treatment received by the patients, which prompts prospective studies on the topic with careful patient selection.

Critical Appraisal of Randomized Controlled Trials on Unruptured Brain Arteriovenous Malformations

OBJECTIVE

Brain arteriovenous malformations management remains controversial despite the numerous, available treatment options. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) theoretically provide the strongest evidence for the assessment of any therapeutic intervention. However, poorly designed RCTs may be associated with biases, inaccuracies, and misleading conclusions. The purpose of our study is to assess reporting transparency and methodological quality of the existing RCTs.

METHODS

A search was performed in the PubMed, Scopus, Embase, clinicaltrials.gov, and Cochrane databases. The search was limited to English literature. We included all published RCTs reporting on the management of unruptured brain arteriovenous malformations. The eligible studies were evaluated by 5 blinded raters with the CONsolidated Standards of Reporting Trials 2010 statement and the risk-of-bias 2 tool. The inter-rater agreement was assessed with the Fleiss' Kappa.

RESULTS

A randomized trial of unruptured brain arteriovenous malformations (ARUBA) and treatment of brain arteriovenous malformations (TOBAS) trials were evaluated. ARUBA achieved high CONsolidated standards of reporting trials compliance, while TOBAS showed a moderate one. In ARUBA the introduction, discussion, and other information sections reached the highest compliance rate (80%-86%). The lowest rates were recorded in the results and the methods (62% and 73%, respectively). The inter-rater agreement was moderate to substantial (54.1% to 78.4%). All the examined studies demonstrated a high risk of bias, mainly related to ill-defined intended interventions, missing outcome data, and selection of the reported results.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study confirmed the high risk of bias mainly attributed to several protocol violations, deviations, minimal external validity and selection, attrition, and allocation biases of the ARUBA trial. Analysis of the TOBAS trial revealed a moderate overall reporting clarity and a high risk of bias.

Delayed recurrence of pediatric arteriovenous malformations after radiologically confirmed obliteration

OBJECTIVE

Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are a major cause of intracerebral hemorrhage in children, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality. Moreover, the rate of AVM recurrence in children is significantly higher than in adults. The aim of this study was to define the risk of delayed pediatric AVM (pAVM) recurrence following confirmed radiological obliteration. Further understanding of this risk could inform the role of long-term radiological surveillance.

METHODS

The authors conducted a retrospective review of ruptured and unruptured pAVM cases treated at a single tertiary care referral center between 1994 and 2019. Demographics, clinical characteristics, treatment modalities, and AVM recurrence were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 102 pediatric patients with intracranial AVMs, including 52 (51%) ruptured cases, were identified. The mean patient age at presentation was 11.2 ± 4.4 years, and 51 (50%) patients were female. The mean nidus size was 2.66 ± 1.44 cm. The most common Spetzler-Martin grades were III (32%) and II (31%). Stereotactic radiosurgery was performed in 69.6% of patients. AVM obliteration was radiologically confirmed in 68 (72.3%) of 94 patients with follow-up imaging, on angiography in 50 (73.5%) patients and on magnetic resonance imaging in 18 (26.5%). AVM recurrence was identified in 1 (2.3%) of 43 patients with long-term surveillance imaging over a mean follow-up of 54.7 ± 38.9 months (range 2-153 months). This recurrence was identified in a boy who had presented with a ruptured AVM and had been surgically treated at 5 years of age. The AVM recurred 54 months after confirmed obliteration on surveillance digital subtraction angiography. Two other cases of presumed AVM recurrence following resection in young children were excluded from recurrence analysis because of incomplete sets of imaging available for review.

CONCLUSIONS

AVM recurrence following confirmed obliteration on imaging is a rare phenomenon, though it occurs more frequently in the pediatric population. Regular long-term follow-up with dedicated surveillance angiography is recommended even after obliteration following resection.

Intracranial arteriovenous malformations

The treatment of arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) has evolved over the last 10 years. It is now possible to see that obliteration continues for up to 10 years and that the final obliteration rate may be between 85% and 90%. Improved imaging has made the treatment more efficient and has reduced the complications. It is possible to treat larger AVMs in a single session than was previously thought possible without increases in the complication rates. In addition, treatments of larger lesions can be staged. The use of 3D rotating angiography produces remarkable images which can be imported into GammaPlan. On the other hand efforts are ongoing to avoid the need for digital subtraction angiography, which would make the treatment a lot more comfortable.

Normalization of Peri-Arteriovenous Malformation Hemodynamics Prior to Direct Microsurgery: 2-Dimensional Operative Video

Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are highly complex vascular lesions characterized by abnormal connections between arteries and an intervening nidus. Definitive and safe treatment of AVMs may require the combination of multiple treatment modalities to address the various complex features of the AVM.1 Endovascular embolization can be used as an adjuvant to surgery in order to control deep feeders, reduce flow, and address high-risk features such as aneurysms. In addition, by progressively reducing the AVM flow, staged embolization can lead to normalization of peri-AVM hemodynamics and therefore may decrease the risk of postresection hemorrhage.2,3 In this operative video, we present a case of a 41-yr-old female who presented with progressively worsening left-sided hemiparesis. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and angiography revealed a complex right fronto-parietal AVM with significant associated edema, likely due to the vascular steal phenomenon. The area of edema, which included the motor cortex, was thought to be at high risk for postoperative hemorrhage from normal perfusion pressure breakthrough. We therefore decided to proceed with staged presurgical embolization to gradually normalize the perilesional hemodynamics, and therefore possibly reduce the risk of postoperative morbidity. The patient underwent 3 embolization sessions at 6-wk intervals. An MRI after the last embolization showed near-complete resolution of the fluid-attenuated inversion-recovery (FLAIR) signal around the AVM. Microsurgical resection was performed on the day after the last embolization. The patient tolerated the procedure well and was discharged at her neurological baseline with mild contralateral hemiparesis, which has continued to improve at follow-up. Postoperative angiography showed complete resection of the AVM. The patient consented to the procedure as shown in this operative video and gave informed written consent for use of her images in publication.

Medical Adjuvants in the Treatment of Surgically Refractory Arteriovenous Malformations of the Head and Face: Case Report and Review of Literature

BACKGROUND

Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) of the brain and face present unique challenges for clinicians. Cerebral AVMs may induce hemorrhage or form aneurysms, while facial AVMs can cause significant disfigurement and pain. Moreover, facial AVMs often draw blood supply from arteries providing critical blood flow to other important structures of the head which may make them impossible to treat curatively. Medical adjuvants may be an important consideration in the management of these patients.

SUMMARY

We conducted a systematic review of the literature to identify other instances of molecular target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors used as medical adjuvants for the treatment of cranial and facial AVMs. We also present 2 cases from our own institution where patients were treated with partial embolization, followed by adjuvant therapy with rapamycin. After screening a total of 75 articles, 7 were identified which described use of rapamycin in the treatment of inoperable cranial or facial AVM. In total, 21 cases were reviewed. The median treatment duration was 12 months (3-24.5 months), and the highest recorded dose was 3.5 mg/m2. 76.2% of patients demonstrated at least a partial response to rapamycin therapy. In 2 patients treated at our institution, symptomatic and radiographic improvement were noted 6 months after initiation of therapy. Key Messages: Early results have been encouraging in a small number of patients with inoperable AVM of the head and face treated with mTOR inhibitors. Further study of medical adjuvants such as rapamycin may be worthwhile.

Chinese Cerebrovascular Neurosurgery Society and Chinese Interventional & Hybrid Operation Society, of Chinese Stroke Association Clinical Practice Guidelines for Management of Brain Arteriovenous Malformations in Eloquent Areas

Aim: The aim of this guideline is to present current and comprehensive recommendations for the management of brain arteriovenous malformations (bAVMs) located in eloquent areas. Methods: An extended literature search on MEDLINE was performed between Jan 1970 and May 2020. Eloquence-related literature was further screened and interpreted in different subcategories of this guideline. The writing group discussed narrative text and recommendations through group meetings and online video conferences. Recommendations followed the Applying Classification of Recommendations and Level of Evidence proposed by the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Prerelease review of the draft guideline was performed by four expert peer reviewers and by the members of Chinese Stroke Association. Results: In total, 809 out of 2,493 publications were identified to be related to eloquent structure or neurological functions of bAVMs. Three-hundred and forty-one publications were comprehensively interpreted and cited by this guideline. Evidence-based guidelines were presented for the clinical evaluation and treatment of bAVMs with eloquence involved. Topics focused on neuroanatomy of activated eloquent structure, functional neuroimaging, neurological assessment, indication, and recommendations of different therapeutic managements. Fifty-nine recommendations were summarized, including 20 in Class I, 30 in Class IIa, 9 in Class IIb, and 2 in Class III. Conclusions: The management of eloquent bAVMs remains challenging. With the evolutionary understanding of eloquent areas, the guideline highlights the assessment of eloquent bAVMs, and a strategy for decision-making in the management of eloquent bAVMs.

Presence of direct vertebrobasilar perforator feeders in posterior fossa arteriovenous malformations and association with poor outcomes after endovascular treatment

OBJECTIVE

Treatment of posterior fossa arteriovenous malformations (PFAVMs) remains controversial as it is always challenging and may lead to major complications. Nonetheless, these lesions are more likely to bleed and generate poorer outcomes than other brain AVMs. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of endovascular treatment on long-term outcomes and identify the patient subgroups that might benefit from endovascular treatment.

METHODS

The authors performed a retrospective analysis of all consecutive cases of PFAVM managed at the Fondation Rothschild Hospital between 1995 and 2018. Clinical, imaging, and treatment data were prospectively gathered; these data were analyzed with respect to long-term outcomes.

RESULTS

Among the 1311 patients with brain AVMs, 114 (8.7%) had a PFAVM, and 88 (77.2%) of these patients had a history of bleeding. Of the 114 PFAVMs, 101 (88.6%) were treated (83 ruptured and 18 unruptured). The mean duration of follow-up was 47.6 months (range 0-240 months). Good neurological outcome at last follow-up was achieved in 79 cases (78.2%). Follow-up angiography showed obliteration of the PFAVM in 68.3% of treated cases. The presence of direct vertebrobasilar perforator feeders was associated with neurological deterioration (OR 5.63, 95% CI 11.15-30.76) and a lower obliteration rate (OR 15.69, 95% CI 2.52-304.03) after endovascular treatment. Other predictors of neurological deterioration and obliteration rate were consistent with the Spetzler-Martin grading system.

CONCLUSIONS

Advances in endovascular techniques have enabled higher obliteration rates in the treatment of PFAVMs, but complication rates are still high. Subgroups of patients who might benefit from treatment must be carefully selected and the presence of direct vertebrobasilar perforator feeders must call into question the indication for endovascular treatment.

A combined single-stage procedure to treat brain AVM

Complete resection of brain arteriovenous malformation (AVM) is a surgical challenge, mainly due to risk of intraoperative rupture. The objective of this feasibility study was to analyze complete resection rate at 3 months and clinical outcome at 6 months after treatment of brain AVM by combined single-stage embolization and surgical resection. A retrospective observational study from July 2015 to February 2019 was conducted at the Department of Neurosurgery of Strasbourg University Hospital, France. Decision to treat was taken on the basis of history of AVM rupture, symptomatic AVM, or morphologic risk factors for rupture. Complete resection rate was assessed on postoperative cerebral subtraction angiography at 3 months and clinical outcome at 6 months was evaluated on the modified Rankin Scale (mRS). In the 16 patients treated for symptomatic brain AVM, the rate of complete resection was 75%, resection with residual shunt 18.7%, and incomplete resection with residual nidus 6.3%. Good clinical outcome (mRS=0 or 1) was achieved in 81.3% of patients at 6 months. The transfusion rate was 7.1%. There were procedural complications in 12.5% of patients but no intraoperative ruptures. This combined single-stage procedure allows extensive preoperative embolization of the AVM, facilitating surgical microdissection by identifying the dissection plane and perforating arteries and allowing the operator to work in close contact with the nidus without fear of intraoperative rupture.

Overview of the current concepts in the management of arteriovenous malformations of the brain

Background

There is a lack of consensus in the management of arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) of the brain since ARUBA (A Randomised trial of Unruptured Brain Arteriovenous malformations) trial showed that medical management is superior to interventional therapy in patients with unruptured brain AVMs. The treatment of brain AVM is associated with significant morbidity.

Objectives and methods

A review was done to determine the behaviour of brain AVMs and analyse the risks and benefits of the available treatment options. A search was done in the literature for studies on brain AVMs. Descriptive analysis was also done.

Results

The angiogenic factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor and inflammatory cytokines are involved in the growth of AVMs. Proteinases such as matrix metalloproteinase-9 contribute to the weakening and rupture of the nidus. The risk factors for haemorrhage are prior haemorrhage, deep and infratentorial AVM location, exclusive deep venous drainage and associated aneurysms. The advancements in operating microscope and surgical techniques have facilitated microsurgery. Stereotactic radiosurgery causes progressive vessel obliteration over 2–3 years. Endovascular embolisation can be done prior to microsurgery or radiosurgery and for palliation.

Conclusions

Spetzler-Martin grades I and II have low surgical risks. The AVMs located in the cerebellum, subarachnoid cisterns and pial surfaces of the brainstem can be treated surgically. Radiosurgery is preferable for deep-seated AVMs. A combination of microsurgery, embolisation and radiosurgery is recommended for deep-seated and Spetzler-Martin grade III AVMs. Observation is recommended for grades IV and V.

Embolization of brain arteriovenous malformations with intent to cure: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Endovascular embolization has been established as an adjuvant treatment strategy for brain arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). A growing body of literature has discussed curative embolization for select lesions. The transition of endovascular embolization from an adjunctive to a definitive treatment modality remains controversial. Here, the authors reviewed the literature to assess the lesional characteristics, technical factors, and angiographic and clinical outcomes of endovascular embolization of AVMs with intent to cure.

METHODS

Electronic databases-Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid Embase, and PubMed-were searched for studies in which there was evidence of AVMs treated using endovascular embolization with intent to cure. The primary outcomes of interest were angiographic obliteration immediately postembolization and at follow-up. The secondary outcomes of interest were complication rates. Descriptive statistics were used to calculate rates and means.

RESULTS

Fifteen studies with 597 patients and 598 AVMs treated with intent-to-cure embolization were included in this analysis. Thirty-four percent of AVMs were Spetzler-Martin grade III. Complete obliteration immediately postembolization was reported in 58.3% of AVMs that had complete treatment and in 45.8% of AVMs in the entire patient cohort. The overall clinical complication rate was 24.1%. The most common complication was hemorrhage, occurring in 9.7% of patients. Procedure-related mortality was 1.5%.

CONCLUSIONS

While endovascular embolization with intent to cure can be an option for select AVMs, the reported complication rates appear to be increased compared with those in studies in which adjunctive embolization was the goal. Given the high complication rate related to a primary embolization approach, the risks and benefits of such a treatment strategy should be discussed among a multidisciplinary team. Curative embolization of AVMs should be considered an unanticipated benefit of such therapy rather than a goal.

Updates in arteriovenous malformation management: the post-ARUBA era

Brain arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are complex and heterogeneous lesions that can rupture, causing significant morbidity and mortality. While ruptured lesions are usually treated, the management of unruptured AVMs remains unclear. A Randomized trial of Unruptured Brain Arteriovenous Malformations (ARUBA) was the first trial conducted to compare the effects of medical and interventional therapy. Although it concluded that medical therapy was superior in preventing stroke and death over a follow-up period of 33 months, the findings were met with intense criticism regarding several aspects of study design, progression, and analysis/conclusion. Namely, the increased use of stand-alone embolisation relative to microsurgery in a cohort with predominantly low-grade lesions combined with a short follow-up period amplified treatment risk. Subsequently, several observational studies were conducted on ARUBA-eligible patients to investigate the safety and efficacy of microsurgery, radiosurgery, and endovascular embolisation over longer follow-up periods. These reports showed that favourable safety profiles and cure rates can be achieved with appropriate patient selection and judicious use of different treatment modalities in multidisciplinary centres. Since large prospective randomised trials on AVMs may not be feasible, it is important to make use of practice-based data beyond the flawed ARUBA study to optimise patients' lifetime outcomes.

A Tractography-Based Grading Scale of Brain Arteriovenous Malformations Close to the Corticospinal Tract to Predict Motor Outcome After Surgery

Background: Surgical decision-making for brain arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) close to the corticospinal tract (CST) is always challenging. The purpose of this study was to develop a tractography-based grading scale to improve preoperative risk prediction and patient selection.

Methods: We analyzed a consecutive, surgically treated series of 90 patients with AVMs within a 10-mm range from the CST demonstrated by preoperative diffusion tensor tractography. Poor motor outcome was defined as persistent postoperative limb weakness. We examined the predictive ability of nidus-to-CST distance (NCD), the closest CST level (CCL), deep perforating artery supply, as well as variables of the supplemented Spetzler-Martin grading system. Three logistic models were derived from different multivariable logistic regression analyses, of which the most predictive model was selected to construct a prediction grading scale. Receiver operating characteristic analysis was conducted to test the predictive accuracy of the grading scale.

Results: Twenty-one (23.3%) patients experienced persistent postoperative limb weakness after a mean 2.7-year follow-up. The most predictive logistic model showed NCD (P = 0.001), CCL (P = 0.017), patient age (P = 0.004), and AVM diffuseness (P = 0.021) were independent predictors for poor motor outcome. We constructed the CLAD grading scale incorporating these predictors. The predictive accuracy of the CLAD grade was better compared with the supplemented Spetzler-Martin grade (area under curve = 0.84 vs. 0.68, P = 0.023).

Conclusions: Both NCD and CCL predict motor outcome after resection of AVMs close to the CST. We propose the CLAD grading scale as an effective risk-prediction tool in surgical decision-making.

Clinical Trial Registration:www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT01758211 and NCT02868008

Usefulness of High-Resolution Three-Dimensional Multifusion Medical Imaging for Preoperative Planning in Patients with Cerebral Arteriovenous Malformation

BACKGROUND

Successful resection of arteriovenous malformation (AVM) depends on preoperative assessment of the detailed morphology of the AVM. Simultaneous detailed three-dimensional visualization of the feeding arteries, draining veins, and surrounding structures is needed. The aim of this study was to evaluate the usefulness of high-resolution three-dimensional multifusion medical imaging (HR-3DMMI) for preoperative planning of AVM resection.

METHODS

HR-3DMMI combined magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic resonance angiography, thin-slice computed tomography, and three-dimensional rotational angiography. Surface rendering was mainly used for creation of HR-3DMMI using multiple thresholds to create three-dimensional models. HR-3DMMI technique was used in 8 patients for preoperative planning, and imaging findings were compared with operative findings.

RESULTS

All feeding arteries and draining veins were found intraoperatively at the same position as estimated preoperatively and were occluded as planned preoperatively.

CONCLUSIONS

HR-3DMMI technique demonstrated the precise locations of feeding arteries, draining veins, and surrounding important tissues, such as corticospinal tract and arcuate fiber, preoperatively and estimated the appropriate route for resection of the AVM. HR-3DMMI is expected to be a very useful support tool for surgery of AVM.

Spetzler-Martin grade IV and V arteriovenous malformations: Treatment outcomes and risk factors for negative outcomes after surgical resection

OBJECTIVE

Microsurgical resection may be recommended for high grade brain arteriovenous malformations (BAVMs) (HBAVMs) in individualized patients. Careful case selection is necessary to minimize postoperative complications. The aim of this study was to determine the surgical outcomes in patients with HBAVMs and to identify their risk factors associated with postoperative negative outcomes.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We retrospectively studied 53 consecutive patients with HBAVMs. All patients had undergone preoperative diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), MRI, 3D time-of-flight MRA (3D TOF-MRA) and digital subtraction angiography (DSA) followed by resection. White matter (WM) eloquent fibre tracts, including the corticospinal tract (CST), optic radiation (OR) and arcuate fasciculus (AF), were tract. Both functional, angioarchitectural and operative factors were analyzed with respect to the surgical outcomes.

RESULTS

Nineteen (35.8%) patients suffered from negative surgical outcomes (MRS > 2) one week after surgery. At the last clinic visit, 10 patients (18.9%) suffered from negative surgical outcomes. Diffuse nidus (P = 0.018), Perforating arteries (PA) supplying (P = 0.009) and CST involving (P = 0.001) were independent risk factors for negative short-term outcomes. PA supplying (P = 0.039), CST involving (P = 0.026) and postoperative intracranial haemorrhage (ICH) (P = 0.014) were independent risk factors for negative long-term neurological outcomes. Larger nidus size (P = 0.024) was predictor of postoperative ICH. The cut-off point was 6.8 cm.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified that diffuse nidus, PA supplying and CST involving are risk factors for negative short-term outcomes in patients with HBAVMs. PA supplying, CST involving and postoperative ICH are risk factors for negative long-term outcomes. Larger nidus size was risk factor for postoperative ICH.

A supplementary grading scale combining lesion-to-eloquence distance for predicting surgical outcomes of patients with brain arteriovenous malformations

OBJECTIVE Case selection for the surgical treatment of brain arteriovenous malformations (BAVMs) remains challenging. This study aimed to construct a predictive grading system combining lesion-to-eloquence distance (LED) for selecting patients with BAVMs for surgery. METHODS Between September 2012 and September 2015, the authors retrospectively studied 201 consecutive patients with BAVMs. All patients had undergone preoperative functional MRI and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), followed by resection. Both angioarchitectural factors and LED were analyzed with respect to the change between preoperative and final postoperative modified Rankin Scale (mRS) scores. LED refers to the distance between the lesion and the nearest eloquent area (eloquent cortex or eloquent fiber tracts) measured on preoperative fMRI and DTI. Based on logistic regression analysis, the authors constructed 3 new grading systems. The HDVL grading system includes the independent predictors of mRS change (hemorrhagic presentation, diffuseness, deep venous drainage, and LED). Full Score combines the variables in the Spetzler-Martin (S-M) grading system (nidus size, eloquence of adjacent brain, and venous drainage) and the HDVL. For the third grading system, the fS-M grading system, the authors added information regarding eloquent fiber tracts to the S-M grading system. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves was compared with those of the S-M grading system and the supplementary S-M grading system of Lawton et al. RESULTS LED was significantly correlated with a change in mRS score (p < 0.001). An LED of 4.95 mm was the cutoff point for the worsened mRS score. Hemorrhagic presentation, diffuseness, deep venous drainage, and LED were independent predictors of a change in mRS score. Predictive accuracy was highest for the HDVL grading system (area under the ROC curve 0.82), followed by the Full Score grading system (0.80), the fS-M grading system (0.79), the supplementary S-M grading system (0.76), and least for the S-M grading system (0.71). Predictive accuracy of the HDVL grading system was significantly better than that of the Spetzler-Martin grade (p = 0.040). CONCLUSIONS LED was a significant predictor for the preoperative risk evaluation for surgery. The HDVL system was a good predictor of neurological outcomes after BAVM surgery. Adding the consideration of the involvement of eloquent fiber tracts to preoperative evaluation can effectively improve its predictive accuracy.

Microsurgery for intracranial arteriovenous malformation: Long-term outcomes in 445 patients

BACKGROUND

The management of intracranial arteriovenous malformations(AVMs) poses challenges to the cerebrovascular specialists.

OBJECTIVE

To review the long-term outcomes of intracranial AVMs treated with microsurgical resections.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective review of 445 patients with intracranial AVMs treated in our hospital from January 1st, 2008 to December 31st, 2014. The extracted data included demographic characteristics, clinical presentations, Spetzler-Martin (SM) grades, Supplemented Spetzler-Martin (SM-Supp) Grades, treatment modalities, long-term outcomes, and obliteration rates. Outcome was assessed with a post-operative modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score at the last follow-up visit.

RESULTS

Of the 445 patients treated with microsurgery, 298 (67.0%) patients initially presented with hemorrhage. Based on the SM grading system, the patients were graded as follows: 83(18.6%) Grade I, 156(35.1%) Grade II, 132(29.7%) Grade III, 61(13.7%) Grade IV and 13(2.9%) Grade V. Overall, 344(77.3%) patients had a favorable outcome (mRS score of 0-2). The favorable outcome for Grade I and II were 92.8% and 85.9%, respectively, sharply reducing to 52.5% in patients with Grade IV and 15.4% in patients with Grade V AVMs. 388(87.2%) patients achieved complete obliteration of the AVMs. 63(14.2%) patients experienced recurrent hemorrhage, and the frequency of rehemorrhage was highest in Grade V patients (77.0%), dropping to 3.6% and 3.8% in patients with Grade I and II lesions, respectively. Permanent neurological deficits occurred in 66(14.8%) patients and death in 35(7.9%) patients. There was no difference of AUROC values between SM grading system and SM-supp grading system (0.726 and 0.734, respectively, p = .715).

CONCLUSION

The Spetzler-Martin grading system is a simple and effective method to estimate the risk of surgery and to evaluate the prognosis. Microsurgical resection for AVMs depends on the SM grades, and the morbidity-mortality rate increases with an increasing SM grade.

Role of follow-up imaging after resection of brain arteriovenous malformations in pediatric patients: a systematic review of the literature

OBJECTIVE Pediatric patients are at risk for the recurrence of brain arteriovenous malformation (AVM) after resection. While there is general consensus on the importance of follow-up after surgical removal of an AVM, there is a lack of consistency in the duration of that follow-up. The object of this systematic review was to examine the role of follow-up imaging in detecting AVM recurrence early and preventing AVM rupture. METHODS This systematic review was performed using articles obtained through a search of the literature contained in the MeSH database, according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. RESULTS Search results revealed 1052 articles, 13 of which described 31 cases of AVM recurrence meeting the criteria for inclusion in this study. Detection of AVM occurred significantly earlier (mean ± SD, 3.56 ± 3.67 years) in patients with follow-up imaging than in those without (mean 8.86 ± 5.61 years; p = 0.0169). While 13.34% of patients who underwent follow-up imaging presented with rupture of a recurrent AVM, 57.14% of those without follow-up imaging presented with a ruptured recurrence (p = 0.0377). CONCLUSIONS Follow-up imaging has an integral role after AVM resection and is sometimes not performed for a sufficient period, leading to delayed detection of recurrence and an increased likelihood of a ruptured recurrent AVM.

New predictive model for microsurgical outcome of intracranial arteriovenous malformations: study protocol

INTRODUCTION

Although microsurgical resection is currently the first-line treatment modality for arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), microsurgery of these lesions is complicated due to the fact that they are very heterogeneous vascular anomalies. The Spetzler-Martin grading system and the supplementary grading system have demonstrated excellent performances in predicting the risk of AVM surgery. However, there are currently no predictive models based on multimodal MRI techniques. The purpose of this study is to propose a predictive model based on multimodal MRI techniques to assess the microsurgical risk of intracranial AVMs.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The study consists of 2 parts: the first part is to conduct a single-centre retrospective analysis of 201 eligible patients to create a predictive model of AVM surgery based on multimodal functional MRIs (fMRIs); the second part is to validate the efficacy of the predictive model in a prospective multicentre cohort study of 400 eligible patients. Patient characteristics, AVM features and multimodal fMRI data will be collected. The functional status at pretreatment and 6 months after surgery will be analysed using the modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score. The patients in each part of this study will be dichotomised into 2 groups: those with improved or unchanged functional status (a decreased or unchanged mRS 6 months after surgery) and those with worsened functional status (an increased mRS). The first part will determine the risk factors of worsened functional status after surgery and create a predictive model. The second part will validate the predictive model and then a new AVM grading system will be proposed.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The study protocol and informed consent form have been reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Beijing Tiantan Hospital Affiliated to Capital Medical University (KY2016-031-01). The results of this study will be disseminated through printed media.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT02868008.

Genetic and epigenetic mechanisms in the development of arteriovenous malformations in the brain

Vascular malformations are developmental congenital abnormalities of the vascular system which may involve any segment of the vascular tree such as capillaries, veins, arteries, or lymphatics. Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are congenital vascular lesions, initially described as “erectile tumors,” characterized by atypical aggregation of dilated arteries and veins. They may occur in any part of the body, including the brain, heart, liver, and skin. Severe clinical manifestations occur only in the brain. There is absence of normal vascular structure at the subarteriolar level and dearth of capillary bed resulting in aberrant arteriovenous shunting. The causative factor and pathogenic mechanisms of AVMs are unknown. Importantly, no marker proteins have been identified for AVM. AVM is a high flow vascular malformation and is considered to develop because of variability in the hemodynamic forces of blood flow. Altered local hemodynamics in the blood vessels can affect cellular metabolism and may trigger epigenetic factors of the endothelial cell. The genes that are recognized to be associated with AVM might be modulated by various epigenetic factors. We propose that AVMs result from a series of changes in the DNA methylation and histone modifications in the genes connected to vascular development. Aberrant epigenetic modifications in the genome of endothelial cells may drive the artery or vein to an aberrant phenotype. This review focuses on the molecular pathways of arterial and venous development and discusses the role of hemodynamic forces in the development of AVM and possible link between hemodynamic forces and epigenetic mechanisms in the pathogenesis of AVM.

Effect of functional MRI-guided navigation on surgical outcomes: a prospective controlled trial in patients with arteriovenous malformations

OBJECTIVE The impact of functional MRI (fMRI)-guided navigation on the surgical outcome of patients with arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) is undetermined. This large, randomized controlled trial (RCT) was designed to determine the safety and efficacy of fMRI-guided microsurgery of AVMs. This paper reports the preliminary results of the interim analysis. METHODS Between September 2012 and June 2015, eligible patients were randomized to the standard microsurgery group (control group) or the fMRI-guided surgery group (experimental group) in a 1:1 ratio. Patients in the control group underwent conventional digital subtraction angiography and MRI before surgery. The surgery was performed according to the standard procedure. However, patients in the experimental group underwent blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging within 1 week before surgery. Moreover, preoperative eloquent brain tissue mapping and intraoperative fMRI navigation were performed in addition to the standard procedure. The preliminary end points were the total removal rate of AVMs and postoperative surgical complications. The primary end points were modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score (favorable: mRS Score 0-2; poor: mRS Score 3-6) and surgery-related permanent functional deficits (S-PFD) at the last clinic visit (≥ 6 months). Statistical analysis was performed using the statistical package from SPSS. RESULTS The interim analysis included 184 participants (93 in the experimental group and 91 in the control group). Patients were equally distributed between the 2 groups. Neither the preliminary nor the primary end points, including postoperative complications (p = 0.781), residual AVM (p = 1.000), last mRS score (p = 0.654), and S-PFD (p = 0.944) showed any significant difference between the control and experimental group. According to the results of the univariate analysis, eloquent adjacent brain tissue (OR 0.14; 95% CI 0.06-0.32; p < 0.001), large size of the nidus (OR 1.05; 95% CI 1.02-1.08; p = 0.002), or diffuse nidus (OR 3.05; 95% CI 1.42-6.58; p = 0.004) were all significantly associated with S-PFD. Additionally, a high Spetzler-Martin score (OR 3.54; 95% CI 2.08-6.02; p < 0.001), no previous hemorrhage (OR 2.35; 95% CI 1.00-5.54; p = 0.05), or a low preoperative mRS score (OR 0.42; 95% CI 0.17-1.00; p = 0.049) were also significantly associated with S-PFD. Multivariate analysis revealed that independent factors correlated with S-PFD were eloquent adjacent brain tissue (OR 0.17; 95% CI 0.04-0.70; p = 0.014) and low preoperative mRS score (OR 0.22; 95% CI 0.07-0.69; p = 0.009). CONCLUSIONS This preplanned interim analysis revealed no significant differences in the primary end points between the experimental and control group, prompting an early termination of this RCT. The preliminary data indicated that the additional intervention of fMRI navigation is not associated with a more favorable surgical outcome in patients with AVMs. The results indicated that eloquent adjacent brain tissue and a low preoperative mRS score are independent risk factors for S-PFD. Clinical trial registration no.: NCT01758211 ( clinicaltrials.gov ).

MULTICENTRE COMPARISON OF PATIENT AND DETECTOR DOSE FOR X-RAY-GUIDED EMBOLISATIONS OF ARTERIOVENOUS MALFORMATIONS IN THE BRAIN

Dosimetric benchmarking at four hospitals was performed to investigate incident entrance dose and dose rate on a phantom, and entrance detector dose and dose rate for protocols that are used in routine clinical practice for complex neuroradiological treatment of arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). Measurements were performed with a head phantom that simulates the attenuation and scattering of the human head for the lateral and posteroanterior (PA) views. For fluoroscopy, the measured incident entrance dose rate and entrance detector dose rate were in the range of 44-172 and 0.3-1.3 μGy s(-1), respectively. The pulse rate in fluoroscopy varied between 6.3 and 15 frames per second (fps). For digital subtraction angiography (DSA), incident entrance dose per frame and entrance detector dose per frame were in the range of 744-2800 and 2.6-8.1 μGy/frame, respectively. Optimisation of acquisition parameters such as pulse rate in fluoroscopy, dose per frame in DSA, beam filtration and tube voltage may further improve imaging protocols and lower the patient dose in very complex X-ray-guided embolisations of AVMs in the brain. However, differences in these acquisition parameters observed in this study were relatively small, suggesting that a relatively high degree of optimisation has already been achieved.

[Treatment of brain AVMS (TOBAS): A randomized controlled trial and registry]

OBJECTIVE

The management of unruptured and ruptured brain arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) remains controversial. The Treatment of Brain AVM Study (TOBAS) was designed to assess curative treatments in the management of AVMs. The purpose of our study is to provide a care trial context to brain AVM patients.

METHODS

TOBAS is a pragmatic, prospective study including 2 randomized controlled trials and a registry. All AVM patients can be recruited. The preferred management modality will be predetermined prior to randomization by the team based on clinical judgment. Patients eligible for both conservative and interventional management will be randomly allocated conservative or curative treatment. Randomization will be stratified by a treatment modality (surgery, radiosurgery or embolization) and minimized according to a history of previous rupture and Spetzler-Martin grade. A second randomization will allocate eligible patients to embolization/no embolization prior to surgery or radiosurgery. The primary outcome of the study is death (any cause) or disabling stroke (mRS>2) at 10 years. All patients managed according to clinical judgment alone will be included in the registry. The study is registered under: wwwTrials.gov, ID: NCT02098252.

EXPECTED RESULTS

A minimum recruitment of 540 patients is required to show that treatment can reduce the primary outcome by 10 % (from 25 to 15 %); 440 patients will be needed to show a 10 % increase in angiographic occlusion for a good clinical outcome with pre-embolization.

CONCLUSION

The trial is designed to offer optimal and verifiable care to patients with brain AVMs in spite of the uncertainty. We are currently seeking the participation of multiple centers.

Postoperative imaging for detection of recurrent arteriovenous malformations in children

OBJECT The optimal method for detecting recurrent arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) in children is unknown. An inherent preference exists for MR angiography (MRA) surveillance rather than arteriography. The validity of this strategy is uncertain. METHODS A retrospective chart review was performed on pediatric patients treated for cerebral AVMs at a single institution from 1998 to 2012. Patients with complete obliteration of the AVM nidus after treatment and more than 12 months of follow-up were included in the analysis. Data collection focused on recurrence rates, associated risk factors, and surveillance methods. RESULTS A total of 45 patients with a mean age of 11.7 years (range 0.5-18 years) were treated for AVMs via surgical, endovascular, radiosurgical, or combined approaches. Total AVM obliteration on posttreatment digital subtraction angiography (DSA) was confirmed in 27 patients, of whom the 20 with more than 12 months of follow-up were included in subsequent analysis. The mean follow-up duration in this cohort was 5.75 years (median 5.53 years, range 1.11-10.64 years). Recurrence occurred in 3 of 20 patients (15%). Two recurrences were detected by surveillance DSA and 1 at the time of rehemorrhage. No recurrences were detected by MRA. Median time to recurrence was 33.6 months (range 19-71 months). Two patients (10%) underwent follow-up DSA, 5 (25%) had DSA and MRI/MRA, 9 (45%) had MRI/MRA only, 1 (5%) had CT angiography only, and 3 (15%) had no imaging within the first 3 years of follow-up. After 5 years posttreatment, 2 patients (10%) were followed with MRI/MRA only, 2 (10%) with DSA only, and 10 (50%) with continued DSA and MRI/MRA. CONCLUSIONS AVM recurrence in children occurred at a median of 33.6 months, when MRA was more commonly used for surveillance, but failed to detect any recurrences. A recurrence rate of 15% may be an underestimate given the reliance on surveillance MRA over angiography. A new surveillance strategy is proposed, taking into account exposure to diagnostic radiation and the potential for catastrophic rehemorrhage.

Management of unbled brain arteriovenous malformation study

In a recent trial limited to arteriovenous malformations discovered not to have bled, medical management was superior to medical management plus intervention. The trial was halted after 226 randomizations and a mean follow-up of 3.3 years owing to a disparity favoring the medical arm. Eligible patients were selected as suitable for lesion eradication. The initial sample size of 800 and follow-up plans for a mean of 7 years were lowered and shortened, respectively, by the outcome data. An application for extended follow-up was given poor priority scores owing to estimations that the disparities in outcomes would not change significantly.

Risk factors for worsened muscle strength after the surgical treatment of arteriovenous malformations of the eloquent motor area

OBJECT Case selection for the surgical treatment of arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) of the eloquent motor area remains challenging. The aim of this study was to determine the risk factors for worsened muscle strength after surgery in patients with this disorder. METHODS At their hospital the authors retrospectively studied 48 consecutive patients with AVMs involving motor cortex and/or the descending pathway. All patients had undergone preoperative functional MRI (fMRI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), followed by resection. Both functional and angioarchitectural factors were analyzed with respect to the change in muscle strength. Functional factors included lesion-to-corticospinal tract distance (LCD) on DTI and lesion-to-activation area distance (LAD) and cortical reorganization on fMRI. Based on preoperative muscle strength, the changes in muscle strength at 1 week and 6 months after surgery were defined as short-term and long-term surgical outcomes, respectively. Statistical analysis was performed using the statistical package SPSS (version 20.0.0, IBM Corp.). RESULTS Twenty-one patients (43.8%) had worsened muscle strength 1 week after surgery. However, only 10 patients (20.8%) suffered from muscle strength worsening 6 months after surgery. The LCD was significantly correlated with short-term (p < 0.001) and long-term (p < 0.001) surgical outcomes. For long-term outcomes, patients in the 5 mm ≥ LCD > 0 mm (p = 0.009) and LCD > 5 mm (p < 0.001) categories were significantly associated with a lower risk of permanent motor worsening in comparison with patients in the LCD = 0 mm group. No significant difference was found between patients in the 5 mm ≥ LCD > 0 mm group and LCD > 5 mm group (p = 0.116). Nidus size was the other significant predictor of short-term (p = 0.021) and long-term (p = 0.016) outcomes. For long-term outcomes, the area under the ROC curve (AUC) was 0.728, and the cutoff point was 3.6 cm. Spetzler-Martin grade was not associated with short-term surgical outcomes (0.143), although it was correlated with long-term outcomes (0.038). CONCLUSIONS An AVM with a nidus in contact with tracked eloquent fibers (LCD = 0) and having a large size is more likely to be associated with worsened muscle strength after surgery in patients with eloquent motor area AVMs. Surgical treatment in these patients should be carefully considered. In patients with an LCD > 5 mm, radical resection may be considered to eliminate the risk of hemorrhage.

Management of arteriovenous malformations in the elderly: a single-center case series and analysis of outcomes

OBJECT Treatment of brain arteriovenous malformations (bAVMs) in the elderly remains a challenge for cerebrovascular surgeons. In this study the authors reviewed the patient characteristics, treatments, angiographic results, and clinical outcomes in 28 patients over 65 years of age who were treated at Henry Ford Hospital between 1990 and 2014. METHODS The bAVM database at the authors' institution was queried for records of elderly patients with bAVMs, and data regarding patient demographics, presenting symptoms, bAVM angioarchitecture, treatment modalities, angiographic results, clinical outcomes, and treatment complications were tabulated and analyzed. RESULTS There were 9 male (32%) and 19 female (68%) patients, with an average age ( ± SD) of 73.0 ± 6.95 years. The most common symptoms on presentation were hemorrhage (36%) and headaches (18%). The bAVMs were equally distributed between the supra- and infratentorial compartments. The most common Spetzler-Martin grade was II, observed in 57% of the patients. Eleven patients (39.3%) underwent resection, 4 patients (14.3%) received standalone radiation therapy, and 13 patients (46%) did not receive treatment or were managed expectantly. Four patients (14.3%) were lost to follow-up. Complete bAVM obliteration was achieved in 87% of the treated patients. None of the patients who received any form of treatment died; the overall mortality rate was 3.6%. CONCLUSIONS Surgical management of bAVMs in the elderly can result in complete obliteration and acceptable clinical outcomes.

Surgical Treatment of Cavernous Malformations Involving the Posterior Limb of the Internal Capsule: Utility and Predictive Value of Preoperative Diffusion Tensor Imaging

OBJECTIVE

The surgical treatment of cavernous malformations involving the posterior limb of the internal capsule (PLIC-CMs) is challenging. The aim of this study was to determine the utility and predictive value of preoperative diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in the surgical treatment of PLIC-CMs.

METHODS

Patients with PLIC-CMs who were surgically treated between September 2012 and June 2015 were reviewed. All patients underwent preoperative DTI. Three major fiber tracts were selected for evaluation: 1) corticospinal tract (CST); 2) arcuate fasciculus (AF); and 3) optic radiation (OR). The utility of preoperative DTI for surgical approach selection and intraoperative navigation was documented. An involvement grading system of the major fibers was applied to determine the predictive value of preoperative DTI. A last modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score of 0-2 was considered a good outcome, and a last mRS >2 was considered a poor outcome.

RESULTS

Thirteen patients with 13 PLIC-CMs were reviewed in this study. All the lesions were radically resected via the corridor formed by CST, AF, and OR. None of the patents suffered from mRS >3, and 7 patients (53.8%) got good outcomes at the last clinic visit. The difference between the preoperative mRS scores and last mRS scores was not significant (P = 0.673). The involvement grade of the fiber tracts was significantly associated with the surgical outcome (P = 0.011).

CONCLUSIONS

Preoperative DTI may be a promising tool to determine the surgical approach and predict the surgical outcomes in patients with PLIC-CMs.

Treatment of Brain AVMs (TOBAS): study protocol for a pragmatic randomized controlled trial

Background

The management of unruptured brain arteriovenous malformation (AVM) patients remains controversial. Furthermore, curative attempts to treat ruptured AVM patients have not been questioned so far, and there is a lack of prospective data on clinical results according to treatment modality. Endovascular treatment is often used aiming to improve the safety or efficacy of surgery or radiation therapy, but benefits have never been documented in a trial. A care trial context is needed to evaluate interventions at the same time they are practised.

Methods/Trial design

TOBAS is a pragmatic, prospective, multicenter, randomized, controlled trial and registry which offers a care trial context for brain AVM patients, including surgical resection, radiosurgery or endovascular embolization, alone or combined. The study includes two RCTs and a multimodality prospective registry. The objectives of the proposed study are to assess whether preventive interventions (surgery, embolization, radiation therapy, alone or combined), selected by the local treatment team and performed as locally practiced, randomly allocated and compared with conservative management, in unruptured brain AVM patients eligible for active or conservative management, can improve the proportion of patients having an independent outcome (modified Rankin Scale (mRS) < 3, as assessed by a standardized questionnaire administered by non-masked care personnel) at 10 years. All patients judged ineligible for randomized allocation are to be entered in a multimodal registry. The objective of a nested trial in patients with ruptured or unruptured AVMs to be treated by surgery or radiation therapy, is to assess whether pre-surgical or pre-radiation embolization, randomly allocated and compared with no embolization, can improve the proportion of patients with complete eradication of the AVM, as locally adjudicated, combined with a good clinical outcome (mRS < 3). The study will require up to 2000 patients in approximately 30 centers or more, followed for 10 years. TOBAS is registered at clinicaltrials.gov: NCT02098252 as of 25 March 2014.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13063-015-1019-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Surgical Management of Giant Intracranial Arteriovenous Malformations: A Single Center Experience over 32 years

OBJECTIVE

Treatment of giant intracranial arteriovenous malformations (gAVMs) is a formidable challenge for neurosurgeons and carries significant morbidity and mortality rates for patients compared with smaller AVMs. In this study, we reviewed the treatments, angiographic results, and clinical outcomes in 64 patients with gAVMs who were treated at Henry Ford Hospital between 1980 and 2012.

METHODS

The arteriovenous malformation (AVM) database at our institution was queried for patients with gAVMs (≥ 6 cm) and data regarding patient demographics, presentation, AVM angioarchitecture, and treatments were collected. Functional outcomes as well as complications were analyzed.

RESULTS

Of the 64 patients, 33 (51.6%) were female and 31 (48.4%) were male, with an average age of 45.7 years (SD ± 15.5). The most common symptoms on presentation were headaches (50%), seizures (50%), and hemorrhage (41%). The mean AVM size was 6.65 cm (range, 6-9 cm). Only 6 AVMs (9.4%) were located in the posterior fossa. The most common Spetzler-Martin grade was V, seen in 64% of patients. Of the 64 patients, 42 (66%) underwent surgical excision, 10 (15.5%) declined any treatment, 8 (12.5%) were deemed inoperable and followed conservatively, 2 (3%) had stand-alone embolization, 1 (1.5%) had embolization before stereotactic radiosurgery, and 1 (1.5%) received stereotactic radiosurgery only. Complete obliteration was achieved in 90% of the surgical patients. Mortality rate was 19% in the surgical cohort compared with 22% in the observation cohort (P = 0.770).

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment of gAVMs carries significant morbidity and mortality; however, good outcomes are attainable with a multimodal treatment approach in carefully selected patients.

Visual Field Preservation in Surgery of Occipital Arteriovenous Malformations: A Prospective Study

OBJECTIVE

We reviewed our prospective study of patients with occipital arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) to assess whether the display of optic radiation diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) during neuronavigation-guided surgery can reduce the severity of postoperative visual field deficits (VFDs) and to evaluate the factors associated with visual field preservation.

METHODS

Forty-six consecutive patients with occipital AVMs were randomized in our study. DTI of the optic radiation was displayed during neuronavigation surgery in 24 patients. The other 22 patients were treated surgically without neuronavigation. Modified Rankin Scale (mRS) scores and visual fields were evaluated preoperatively, immediately after surgery, and at the last follow-up.

RESULTS

The patients' baseline characteristics and AVM features were statistically similar between the 2 surgical groups. The postoperative obliteration rate was 100%. The postoperative mRS scores did not differ between the 2 groups (P > 0.05). Preexisting VFDs were more common (P = 0.00004) in patients who bled than in those with unruptured AVMs. The application of DTI-incorporated neuronavigation reduced the frequency and severity of postoperative VFDs (P = 0.013 and 0.001, respectively). Visual fields were more likely to be preserved in patients with an AVM >5 mm from the optic radiation (P = 0.025).

CONCLUSIONS

A history of hemorrhage is an independent risk factor for VFDs associated with occipital AVMs. Although not showing superiority in postoperative mRS, functional MRI navigation-guided surgery may help to radically resect occipital AVMs and preserve patient visual fields. A 5-mm distance from the optic radiation may be a suitable safety margin for visual field preservation.

Intraoperative arteriovenous malformation rupture: causes, management techniques, outcomes, and the effect of neurosurgeon experience

OBJECT

Intraoperative rupture can transform an arteriovenous malformation (AVM) resection. Blood suffuses the field and visualization is lost; suction must clear the field and the hand holding the suction device is immobilized; the resection stalls while hemostasis is being reestablished; the cause and site of the bleeding may be unclear; bleeding may force technical errors and morbidity from chasing the source into eloquent white matter; and AVM bleeding can be so brisk that it overwhelms the neurosurgeon. The authors reviewed their experience with this dangerous complication to examine its causes, management, and outcomes.

METHODS

From a cohort of 591 patients with AVMs treated surgically during a 15-year period, 32 patients (5%) experienced intraoperative AVM rupture. Their prospective data and medical records were reviewed.

RESULTS

Intraoperative AVM rupture was not correlated with presenting hemorrhage, but had a slightly higher incidence infratentorially (7%) than supratentorially (5%). Rupture was due to arterial bleeding in 18 patients (56%), premature occlusion of a major draining vein in 10 (31%), and nidal penetration in 4 (13%). In 14 cases (44%), bleeding control was abandoned and the AVM was removed immediately ("commando resection"). The incidence of intraoperative rupture was highest during the initial 5-year period (9%) and dropped to 3% and 4% in the second and third 5-year periods, respectively. Ruptures due to premature venous occlusion and nidal penetration diminished with experience, whereas those due to arterial bleeding remained steady. Despite intraoperative rupture, 90% of AVMs were completely resected initially and all of them ultimately. Intraoperative rupture negatively impacted outcome, with significantly higher final modified Rankin Scale scores (mean 2.8) than in the overall cohort (mean 1.5; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Intraoperative AVM rupture is an uncommon complication caused by pathological arterial anatomy and by technical mistakes in judging the dissection distance from the AVM margin and in mishandling or misinterpreting the draining veins. The decrease in intraoperative rupture rate over time suggests the existence of a learning curve. In contrast, intraoperative rupture due to arterial bleeding reflects the difficulty with dysplastic feeding vessels and deep perforator anatomy rather than neurosurgeon experience. The results demonstrate that intraoperative AVM rupture negatively impacts patient outcome, and that skills in managing this catastrophe are critical.

Molecular and cellular biology of cerebral arteriovenous malformations: a review of current concepts and future trends in treatment

OBJECT

Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are classically described as congenital static lesions. However, in addition to rupturing, AVMs can undergo growth, remodeling, and regression. These phenomena are directly related to cellular, molecular, and physiological processes. Understanding these relationships is essential to direct future diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. The authors performed a search of the contemporary literature to review current information regarding the molecular and cellular biology of AVMs and how this biology will impact their potential future management.

METHODS

A PubMed search was performed using the key words "genetic," "molecular," "brain," "cerebral," "arteriovenous," "malformation," "rupture," "management," "embolization," and "radiosurgery." Only English-language papers were considered. The reference lists of all papers selected for full-text assessment were reviewed.

RESULTS

Current concepts in genetic polymorphisms, growth factors, angiopoietins, apoptosis, endothelial cells, pathophysiology, clinical syndromes, medical treatment (including tetracycline and microRNA-18a), radiation therapy, endovascular embolization, and surgical treatment as they apply to AVMs are discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

Understanding the complex cellular biology, physiology, hemodynamics, and flow-related phenomena of AVMs is critical for defining and predicting their behavior, developing novel drug treatments, and improving endovascular and surgical therapies.

Endovascular and microsurgical treatment of cerebral arteriovenous malformations: Current recommendations

Background:

Cerebral arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) can be a heterogeneous pathological entity whose management requires a complex decision-making process due to the risks associated with their treatment and natural history. Despite the recently published conclusions of the aborted Randomized Trial of Brain Unruptured AVMs (ARUBA) trial, the authors of this article believe multimodality intervention in general and microsurgical resection in particular continue to play a major role in the management of carefully selected ruptured or unruptured AVMs.

Methods:

The authors provide an overview of their methodology for endovascular intervention and microsurgical resection and share their technical nuances for successful embolization and microsurgical resection of AVMs with special emphasis on complication avoidance.

Results:

The authors have achieved successful outcomes in embolization and resection of cerebral AVMs when using their methodology.

Conclusions:

These lesions are among the most technically difficult pathological entities handled by the cerebrovascular specialist, and an overview of technical concepts to help systematize this challenging and variable endeavor can improve the safety of their treatment.