Effect of PCC on outcomes of severe traumatic brain injury patients on preinjury anticoagulation

INTRODUCTION

This study aims to evaluate effect of 4-factor PCC on outcomes of severe TBI patients on preinjury anticoagulants undergoing craniotomy/craniectomy.

METHODS

In this analysis of 2018-2020 ACS-TQIP, patients with isolated blunt severe TBI (Head-AIS≥3, nonhead-AIS<2) using preinjury anticoagulants who underwent craniotomy/craniectomy were identified and stratified into PCC and No-PCC groups. Outcomes were time to surgery and mortality. Multivariable binary logistic and linear regression analyses were performed.

RESULTS

1598 patients were identified (PCC-107[7 %], No-PCC-1491[93 %]). Mean age was 74(11) years, 65 % were male, median head AIS was 4. Median time to PCC administration was 109 ​min. On univariable analysis, PCC group had shorter time to surgery (PCC-341, No-PCC-620 ​min, p ​= ​0.002), but higher mortality (PCC35 %, No-PCC21 %,p ​= ​0.001). On regression analysis, PCC was independently associated with shorter time to surgery (β ​= ​-1934,95 %CI ​= ​-3339to-26), but not mortality (aOR ​= ​0.70,95 %CI ​= ​0.14-3.62).

CONCLUSION

PCC may be a safe adjunct for urgent reversal of coagulopathy in TBI patients using preinjury anticoagulants.

Derivation of Coagulation Phenotypes and the Association with Prognosis in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Cluster Analysis of Nationwide Multicenter Study

BACKGROUND

The pathogenesis and pathophysiology of traumatic coagulopathy during traumatic brain injury is not well understood, and the appropriate treatment strategy for this condition has not been established. This study aimed to evaluate the coagulation phenotypes and their effect on prognosis in patients with isolated traumatic brain injury.

METHODS

In this multicenter cohort study, we retrospectively analyzed data from the Japan Neurotrauma Data Bank. Adults with isolated traumatic brain injury (head abbreviated injury scale > 2; abbreviated injury scale of any other trauma < 3) who were registered in the Japan Neurotrauma Data Bank were included in this study. The primary outcome was the association of coagulation phenotypes with in-hospital mortality. Coagulation phenotypes were derived using k-means clustering with coagulation markers, including prothrombin time international normalized ratio (PT-INR), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), fibrinogen (FBG), and D-dimer (DD) on arrival at the hospital. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted to calculate the adjusted odds ratios of coagulation phenotypes with their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for in-hospital mortality.

RESULTS

In total, 556 patients were enrolled and five coagulation phenotypes were identified. The median (interquartile range) score for the Glasgow Coma Scale was 6 (4-9). Cluster A (n = 129) had the closest to normal coagulation values; cluster B (n = 323) had a mild high DD phenotype; cluster C (n = 30) had a prolonged PT-INR phenotype with a higher frequency of antithrombotic medication in elderly patients than in younger patients; cluster D (n = 45) had a low amount of FBG, high DD, and prolonged APTT phenotype with a high incidence of skull fracture; and cluster E (n = 29) had a low amount of FBG and extremely high DD phenotype with high energy trauma and a high incidence of skull fracture. In the multivariable logistic regression analysis, the association of clusters B, C, D, and E with in-hospital mortality yielded the corresponding adjusted odds ratios of 2.17 (95% CI 1.22-3.86), 2.61 (95% CI 1.01-6.72), 10.0 (95% CI 4.00-25.2), and 24.1 (95% CI 7.12-81.3), respectively, relative to cluster A.

CONCLUSIONS

This multicenter, observational study identified five different coagulation phenotypes of traumatic brain injury and showed associations of these phenotypes with in-hospital mortality.

The effects of human prothrombin complex concentrate on hemorrhagic shock-induced lung injury in rats: Implications for testing human blood products in rodents

BACKGROUND

Hemorrhagic shock (HS) and trauma can result in an endotheliopathy of trauma, characterized by endothelial compromise, inflammation, and aberrant coagulation. Kcentra, a prothrombin concentrate, has been demonstrated to mitigate pulmonary vascular leak in a murine model of HS. We investigated the effects of Kcentra in a rat model of HS, to achieve physiologic endpoints of relevance.

METHODS

Rats subjected to a grade intravenous splenic injury and controlled hemorrhage for 60 minutes were resuscitated with shed volumes of (1) Lactated Ringer's (LR) solution, (2) LR + 20 IU/kg Kcentra, (3) LR + 50 IU/kg Kcentra, (4) rat fresh frozen plasma (RFFP), or (5) human fresh frozen plasma (HFFP). Blood was harvested for monitoring metabolic and coagulation function. Rat lungs were evaluated for lung injury and permeability.

RESULTS

Animals resuscitated with LR displayed a significant increase in pulmonary vascular permeability (sham, 407.9 ± 122.4; shock + LR, 2040 ± 1462). Resuscitation with RFFP (606.5 ± 169.3) reduced leak; however, treatment with Kcentra (HS + Kcentra [20 IU/kg]: 1792 ± 903.4, HS + Kcentra [50 IU/kg]: 1876 ± 1103), and HFFP (1450 ± 533.2) had no significant effect on permeability. Kcentra modestly altered clotting parameters. Metabolic measures, such as lactate, pH, and base deficit, were restored to baseline levels by both RFFP and HFFP, but not Kcentra or LR.

CONCLUSION

Kcentra did not alter pulmonary vascular permeability, but modestly increased clotting potential in injured rats. This suggests that there may be a xenogenic reaction of human products in rats and that the effects of Kcentra on vascular stability may be distinct from its ability to modulate clotting. Our data indicate that the species chosen and utilized for in vivo preclinical testing of human derived blood products is of critical importance in determining their efficacy in animal models and is the primary impetus to communicate these results.

Choosing the Best Approach to Warfarin Reversal After Traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage

BACKGROUND

Patients on warfarin with traumatic intracranial hemorrhage often have the warfarin effects pharmacologically reversed. We compared outcomes among patients who received 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC), fresh frozen plasma (FFP), or no reversal to assess the real-world impact of PCC on elderly patients with traumatic intracranial hemorrhage (ICH).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was a retrospective analysis of 150 patients on preinjury warfarin. Data were manually abstracted from the electronic medical record of an academic level 1 trauma center for patients admitted between January 2013 and December 2018. Outcomes were ICH progression on follow-up computed tomography scan, mortality, need for surgical intervention, and trends in the use of reversal agents.

RESULTS

Of 150 patients eligible for analysis, 41 received FFP, 60 PCC, and 49 were not reversed. On multivariable analysis, patients not reversed [OR 0.25 95% CI (0.31-0.85)] and women [OR 0.38 95% CI (0.17-0.88)] were less likely to experience progression of their initial bleed on follow-up computed tomography while subdural hemorrhage increased the risk [OR 3.69 95% CI (1.27-10.73)]. There was no difference between groups in terms of mortality or need for surgery. Over time use of reversal with PCC increased while use of FFP and not reversing warfarin declined (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Male gender and using a reversal agent were associated with progression of ICH. Choice of reversal did not impact the need for surgery, hospital length of stay, or mortality. Some ICH patients may not require warfarin reversal and may bias studies, especially retrospective studies of warfarin reversal.

A Retrospective Propensity Score-Matched Early Thromboembolic Event Analysis of Prothrombin Complex Concentrate vs Fresh Frozen Plasma for Warfarin Reversal Prior to Emergency Neurosurgical Procedures

BACKGROUND

Reversal of therapeutic anticoagulation prior to emergency neurosurgical procedures is required in the setting of intracranial hemorrhage. Multifactor prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) promises rapid efficacy but may increase the probability of thrombotic complications compared to fresh frozen plasma (FFP).

OBJECTIVE

To compare the rate of thrombotic complications in patients treated with PCC or FFP to reverse therapeutic anticoagulation prior to emergency neurosurgical procedures in the setting of intracranial hemorrhage at a level I trauma center.

METHODS

Sixty-three consecutive patients on warfarin therapy presenting with intracranial hemorrhage who received anticoagulation reversal prior to emergency neurosurgical procedures were retrospectively identified between 2007 and 2016. They were divided into 2 cohorts based on reversal agent, either PCC (n = 28) or FFP (n = 35). The thrombotic complications rates within 72 h of reversal were compared using the χ2 test. A multivariate propensity score matching analysis was used to limit the threat to interval validity from selection bias arising from differences in demographics, laboratory values, history, and clinical status.

RESULTS

Thrombotic complications were uncommon in this neurosurgical population, occurring in 1.59% (1/63) of treated patients. There was no significant difference in the thrombotic complication rate between groups, 3.57% (1/28; PCC group) vs 0% (0/35; FFP group). Propensity score matching analysis validated this finding after controlling for any selection bias.

CONCLUSION

In this limited sample, thrombotic complication rates were similar between use of PCC and FFP for anticoagulation reversal in the management of intracranial hemorrhage prior to emergency neurosurgical procedures.

Prothrombin Complex Concentrate for Warfarin-Associated Intracranial Bleeding in Neurosurgical Patients: A Single-Center Experience

Objective: The number of patients presenting with warfarin-associated intracranial bleeding and needing neurosurgical intervention is growing. Prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) is commonly used for anti-coagulation reversal before emergent surgery. We present our experience with PCC use in patients presenting with coagulopathy and needing urgent craniotomy. Methods: We retrospectively identified all patients presenting with intracranial bleeding and coagulopathy due to warfarin use, requiring urgent neurosurgical procedures, from January, 2014 (implementation of 4-PCC therapy) until December, 2016. For coagulation reversal, all patients received 4-PCC (Octaplex) and vitamin K. Results: Thirty-five consecutive patients (17 men; median age 72 years) were administered 4-PCC before emergent neurosurgical procedures. The majority of patients presented with traumatic subdural hematoma (62%) and spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (32%). All patients were taking warfarin. Median international normalized ratio (INR) on admission was 2.94 (range: 1.20 to 8.60). Median 4-PCC dose was 2000 I.U. (range: 500 I.U. to 3000 I.U.). There was a statically significant decrease in INR (p < 0.01), PT (p < 0.01), and PTT (p = 0.02) after 4-PCC administration. Postoperative INR values were ≤3.00 in all patients, and seven (20%) patients had normal INR values. There were no 4-PCC related complications. Four (11%) patients developed subdural/epidural hematoma and 20 (57%) patients died. Mortality was associated with lower Glasgow coma scale (GCS) score. Conclusions: The 4-PCC facilitates INR reversal and surgery in patients presenting with warfarin-associated coagulopathy and intracranial bleeding requiring urgent neurosurgical intervention.

Coagulopathy and haemorrhagic progression in traumatic brain injury: advances in mechanisms, diagnosis, and management

Normal haemostasis depends on an intricate balance between mechanisms of bleeding and mechanisms of thrombosis, and this balance can be altered after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Impaired haemostasis could exacerbate the primary insult with risk of initiation or aggravation of bleeding; anticoagulant use at the time of injury can also contribute to bleeding risk after TBI. Many patients with TBI have abnormalities on conventional coagulation tests at admission to the emergency department, and the presence of coagulopathy is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Further blood testing often reveals a range of changes affecting platelet numbers and function, procoagulant or anticoagulant factors, fibrinolysis, and interactions between the coagulation system and the vascular endothelium, brain tissue, inflammatory mechanisms, and blood flow dynamics. However, the degree to which these coagulation abnormalities affect TBI outcomes and whether they are modifiable risk factors are not known. Although the main challenge for management is to address the risk of hypocoagulopathy with prolonged bleeding and progression of haemorrhagic lesions, the risk of hypercoagulopathy with an increased prothrombotic tendency also warrants consideration.

Coagulopathy of Trauma

Coagulopathy is common after injury and develops independently from iatrogenic, hypothermic, and dilutional causes. Despite considerable research on the topic over the past decade, trauma-induced coagulopathy (TIC) continues to portend poor outcomes, including decreased survival. We review the current evidence regarding the diagnosis and mechanisms underlying trauma induced coagulopathy and summarize the debates regarding optimal management strategy including product resuscitation, potential pharmacologic adjuncts, and targeted approaches to hemostasis. Throughout, we will identify areas of continued investigation and controversy in the understanding and management of TIC.

Applying the Cell-Based Coagulation Model in the Management of Critical Bleeding

The cell-based coagulation model was proposed 15 years ago, yet has not been applied commonly in the management of critical bleeding. Nevertheless, this alternative model may better explain the physiological basis of current coagulation management during critical bleeding. In this article we describe the limitations of the traditional coagulation protein cascade and standard coagulation tests, and explain the potential advantages of applying the cell-based model in current coagulation management strategies. The cell-based coagulation model builds on the traditional coagulation model and explains many recent clinical observations and research findings related to critical bleeding unexplained by the traditional model, including the encouraging results of using empirical 1:1:1 fresh frozen plasma:platelets:red blood cells transfusion strategy, and the use of viscoelastic and platelet function tests in patients with critical bleeding. From a practical perspective, applying the cell-based coagulation model also explains why new direct oral anticoagulants are effective systemic anticoagulants even without affecting activated partial thromboplastin time or the International Normalized Ratio in a dose-related fashion. The cell-based coagulation model represents the most cohesive scientific framework on which we can understand and manage coagulation during critical bleeding.

Assessing the Efficacy of Prothrombin Complex Concentrate in Multiply Injured Patients With High-Energy Pelvic and Extremity Fractures

OBJECTIVES

Prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) is being increasingly used for reversing induced coagulopathy of trauma. However, the use of PCC for reversing coagulopathy in multiply injured patients with pelvic and/or lower extremity fractures remains unclear. The aim of our study was to assess the efficacy of PCC for reversing coagulopathy in this group of patients.

DESIGN

Two-year retrospective analysis.

SETTING

Our level I trauma center.

PATIENTS/PARTICIPANTS

All coagulopathic [International normalized ratio (INR) ≥1.5] trauma patients. Patients with femur, tibia, or pelvic fracture were included. Patients were divided into 2 groups: PCC (single dose) and fresh frozen plasma (FFP). Patients in the 2 groups were matched using propensity score matching.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Time to correction of INR, time to intervention, development of thromboembolic complications, mortality, and cost of therapy.

RESULTS

A total of 81 patients (PCC: 27, FFP: 54) were included. Patients who received PCC had faster correction of INR and shorter time to surgical intervention in comparison to patients who received FFP. PCC therapy was also associated with lower overall blood product requirement (P = 0.02) and lower transfusion costs (P = 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

In a matched cohort of multiply injured patients with pelvic and/or lower extremity fractures, administration of a single dose of PCC significantly reduced the time to correction of INR and time to intervention compared with patients who received FFP therapy. This may allow orthopaedic surgeons to more safely proceed with early, definitive fixation strategies.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.