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Uzbekov R, Singina GN, Shedova EN, Banliat C, Avidor-Reiss T, Uzbekova S. Centrosome Formation in the Bovine Early Embryo. Cells 2023; 12:cells12091335. [PMID: 37174735 PMCID: PMC10177215 DOI: 10.3390/cells12091335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Centrosome formation during early development in mice and rats occurs due to the appearance of centrioles de novo. In contrast, in humans and other non-rodent mammals, centrioles are thought to be derived from spermatozoa. Ultrastructural study of zygotes and early embryos of cattle at full series of ultrathin sections show that the proximal centriole of the spermatozoon disappears by the end of the first cleavage division. Centrioles appear in two to four cell embryos in fertilized oocytes and in parthenogenetic embryos. Centriole formation includes the appearance of atypical centrioles with randomly arranged triplets and centrioles with microtubule triplets of various lengths. After the third cleavage, four centriolar cylinders appear for the first time in the blastomeres while each embryo still has two atypical centrioles. Our results showed that the mechanisms of centriole formation in different groups of mammals are universal, differing only in the stage of development in which they occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rustem Uzbekov
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Electron Microscopy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tours, 37032 Tours, France
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia
| | - Galina N Singina
- Laboratory of Experimental Embryology, L.K. Ernst Federal Research Center for Animal Husbandry, Moscow Region, 142132 Podolsk, Russia
| | - Ekaterina N Shedova
- Laboratory of Experimental Embryology, L.K. Ernst Federal Research Center for Animal Husbandry, Moscow Region, 142132 Podolsk, Russia
| | - Charles Banliat
- Ecole Supérieure d'agricultures (ESA), Unité de Recherche sur les Systèmes D'élevage (URSE), 55 rue Rabelais BP, 30748 Angers, France
| | - Tomer Avidor-Reiss
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Svetlana Uzbekova
- UMR Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements (PRC), INRAE, CNRS, Université de Tours, IFCE, 37380 Nouzilly, France
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2
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Uzbekov RE, Avidor-Reiss T. The Centrosome: Conclusions and Perspectives. Cells 2022; 11:cells11233931. [PMID: 36497189 PMCID: PMC9739391 DOI: 10.3390/cells11233931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The centrosome consists of two centrioles surrounded by pericentriolar material [...].
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Affiliation(s)
- Rustem E. Uzbekov
- Faculté de Médecine, Université de Tours, 10, Boulevard Tonnellé, 37032 Tours, France
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Moscow State University, Leninskye Gory 73, 119992 Moscow, Russia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-2-3437-9692
| | - Tomer Avidor-Reiss
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, 3050 W. Towerview Blvd, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
- Department of Urology, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43607, USA
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3
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Avidor-Reiss T, Achinger L, Uzbekov R. The Centriole's Role in Miscarriages. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:864692. [PMID: 35300410 PMCID: PMC8922021 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.864692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Centrioles are subcellular organelles essential for normal cell function and development; they form the cell’s centrosome (a major cytoplasmic microtubule organization center) and cilium (a sensory and motile hair-like cellular extension). Centrioles with evolutionarily conserved characteristics are found in most animal cell types but are absent in egg cells and exhibit unexpectedly high structural, compositional, and functional diversity in sperm cells. As a result, the centriole’s precise role in fertility and early embryo development is unclear. The centrioles are found in the spermatozoan neck, a strategic location connecting two central functional units: the tail, which propels the sperm to the egg and the head, which holds the paternal genetic material. The spermatozoan neck is an ideal site for evolutionary innovation as it can control tail movement pre-fertilization and the male pronucleus’ behavior post-fertilization. We propose that human, bovine, and most other mammals–which exhibit ancestral centriole-dependent reproduction and two spermatozoan centrioles, where one canonical centriole is maintained, and one atypical centriole is formed–adapted extensive species-specific centriolar features. As a result, these centrioles have a high post-fertilization malfunction rate, resulting in aneuploidy, and miscarriages. In contrast, house mice evolved centriole-independent reproduction, losing the spermatozoan centrioles and overcoming a mechanism that causes miscarriages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomer Avidor-Reiss
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States.,Department of Urology, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States
| | - Luke Achinger
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States
| | - Rustem Uzbekov
- Faculté de Médecine, Université de Tours, Tours, France.,Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
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4
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Principal Postulates of Centrosomal Biology. Version 2020. Cells 2020; 9:cells9102156. [PMID: 32987651 PMCID: PMC7598677 DOI: 10.3390/cells9102156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The centrosome, which consists of two centrioles surrounded by pericentriolar material, is a unique structure that has retained its main features in organisms of various taxonomic groups from unicellular algae to mammals over one billion years of evolution. In addition to the most noticeable function of organizing the microtubule system in mitosis and interphase, the centrosome performs many other cell functions. In particular, centrioles are the basis for the formation of sensitive primary cilia and motile cilia and flagella. Another principal function of centrosomes is the concentration in one place of regulatory proteins responsible for the cell's progression along the cell cycle. Despite the existing exceptions, the functioning of the centrosome is subject to general principles, which are discussed in this review.
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Nazarov S, Bezler A, Hatzopoulos GN, Nemčíková Villímová V, Demurtas D, Le Guennec M, Guichard P, Gönczy P. Novel features of centriole polarity and cartwheel stacking revealed by cryo-tomography. EMBO J 2020; 39:e106249. [PMID: 32954505 PMCID: PMC7667878 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2020106249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Centrioles are polarized microtubule‐based organelles that seed the formation of cilia, and which assemble from a cartwheel containing stacked ring oligomers of SAS‐6 proteins. A cryo‐tomography map of centrioles from the termite flagellate Trichonympha spp. was obtained previously, but higher resolution analysis is likely to reveal novel features. Using sub‐tomogram averaging (STA) in T. spp. and Trichonympha agilis, we delineate the architecture of centriolar microtubules, pinhead, and A‐C linker. Moreover, we report ~25 Å resolution maps of the central cartwheel, revealing notably polarized cartwheel inner densities (CID). Furthermore, STA of centrioles from the distant flagellate Teranympha mirabilis uncovers similar cartwheel architecture and a distinct filamentous CID. Fitting the CrSAS‐6 crystal structure into the flagellate maps and analyzing cartwheels generated in vitro indicate that SAS‐6 rings can directly stack onto one another in two alternating configurations: with a slight rotational offset and in register. Overall, improved STA maps in three flagellates enabled us to unravel novel architectural features, including of centriole polarity and cartwheel stacking, thus setting the stage for an accelerated elucidation of underlying assembly mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey Nazarov
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,Interdisciplinary Centre for Electron Microscopy (CIME), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Bezler
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Georgios N Hatzopoulos
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Veronika Nemčíková Villímová
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Davide Demurtas
- Interdisciplinary Centre for Electron Microscopy (CIME), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Maeva Le Guennec
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Geneva, Sciences III, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Paul Guichard
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Geneva, Sciences III, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Pierre Gönczy
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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6
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Debec A, Loppin B, Zheng C, Liu X, Megraw TL. The Enigma of Centriole Loss in the 1182-4 Cell Line. Cells 2020; 9:cells9051300. [PMID: 32456186 PMCID: PMC7290863 DOI: 10.3390/cells9051300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The Drosophila melanogaster cell line 1182-4, which constitutively lacks centrioles, was established many years ago from haploid embryos laid by females homozygous for the maternal haploid (mh) mutation. This was the first clear example of animal cells regularly dividing in the absence of this organelle. However, the cause of the acentriolar nature of the 1182-4 cell line remained unclear and could not be clearly assigned to a particular genetic event. Here, we detail historically the longstanding mystery of the lack of centrioles in this Drosophila cell line. Recent advances, such as the characterization of the mh gene and the genomic analysis of 1182-4 cells, allow now a better understanding of the physiology of these cells. By combining these new data, we propose three reasonable hypotheses of the genesis of this remarkable phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Debec
- Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, iEES, Sorbonne University, UPEC, CNRS, IRD, INRA, F-75005 Paris, France
- Correspondence: (A.D.); (B.L.); (T.L.M.)
| | - Benjamin Loppin
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule—CNRS UMR 5239, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, University of Lyon, F-69007 Lyon, France
- Correspondence: (A.D.); (B.L.); (T.L.M.)
| | - Chunfeng Zheng
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4300, USA;
| | - Xiuwen Liu
- Department of Computer Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4530, USA;
| | - Timothy L. Megraw
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4300, USA;
- Correspondence: (A.D.); (B.L.); (T.L.M.)
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Riparbelli MG, Persico V, Dallai R, Callaini G. Centrioles and Ciliary Structures during Male Gametogenesis in Hexapoda: Discovery of New Models. Cells 2020; 9:E744. [PMID: 32197383 PMCID: PMC7140630 DOI: 10.3390/cells9030744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 03/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Centrioles are-widely conserved barrel-shaped organelles present in most organisms. They are indirectly involved in the organization of the cytoplasmic microtubules both in interphase and during the cell division by recruiting the molecules needed for microtubule nucleation. Moreover, the centrioles are required to assemble cilia and flagella by the direct elongation of their microtubule wall. Due to the importance of the cytoplasmic microtubules in several aspects of the cell life, any defect in centriole structure can lead to cell abnormalities that in humans may result in significant diseases. Many aspects of the centriole dynamics and function have been clarified in the last years, but little attention has been paid to the exceptions in centriole structure that occasionally appeared within the animal kingdom. Here, we focused our attention on non-canonical aspects of centriole architecture within the Hexapoda. The Hexapoda is one of the major animal groups and represents a good laboratory in which to examine the evolution and the organization of the centrioles. Although these findings represent obvious exceptions to the established rules of centriole organization, they may contribute to advance our understanding of the formation and the function of these organelles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Giovanna Riparbelli
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Via Aldo Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy; (M.G.R.); (V.P.); (R.D.)
| | - Veronica Persico
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Via Aldo Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy; (M.G.R.); (V.P.); (R.D.)
| | - Romano Dallai
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Via Aldo Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy; (M.G.R.); (V.P.); (R.D.)
| | - Giuliano Callaini
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Via Aldo Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy; (M.G.R.); (V.P.); (R.D.)
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, Via Aldo Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy
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8
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The Centriolar Adjunct⁻Appearance and Disassembly in Spermiogenesis and the Potential Impact on Fertility. Cells 2019; 8:cells8020180. [PMID: 30791486 PMCID: PMC6406449 DOI: 10.3390/cells8020180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
During spermiogenesis, the proximal centriole forms a special microtubular structure: the centriolar adjunct. This structure appears at the spermatid stage, which is characterized by a condensed chromatin nucleus. We showed that the centriolar adjunct disappears completely in mature porcine spermatozoa. In humans, the centriolar adjunct remnants are present in a fraction of mature spermatids. For the first time, the structure of the centriolar adjunct in the cell, and its consequent impact on fertility, were examined. Ultrastructural analysis using transmission electron microscopy was performed on near 2000 spermatozoa per person, in two patients with idiopathic male sterility (IMS) and five healthy fertile donors. We measured the average length of the “proximal centriole + centriolar adjunct” complex in sections, where it had parallel orientation in the section plane, and found that it was significantly longer in the spermatozoa of IMS patients than in the spermatozoa of healthy donors. This difference was independent of chromatin condensation deficiency, which was also observed in the spermatozoa of IMS patients. We suggest that zygote arrest may be related to an incompletely disassembled centriolar adjunct in a mature spermatozoon. Therefore, centriolar adjunct length can be potentially used as a complementary criterion for the immaturity of spermatozoa in the diagnostics of IMS patients.
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Garanina A, Kireev I, Zhironkina O, Strelkova O, Shakhov A, Alieva I, Davydov V, Murugesan S, Khabashesku V, Majouga A, Agafonov V, Uzbekov R. Long-term live cells observation of internalized fluorescent Fe@C nanoparticles in constant magnetic field. J Nanobiotechnology 2019; 17:27. [PMID: 30728022 PMCID: PMC6364403 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-019-0463-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Theranostics application of superparamagnetic nanoparticles based on magnetite and maghemite is impeded by their toxicity. The use of additional protective shells significantly reduced the magnetic properties of the nanoparticles. Therefore, iron carbides and pure iron nanoparticles coated with multiple layers of onion-like carbon sheath seem to be optimal for biomedicine. Fluorescent markers associated with magnetic nanoparticles provide reliable means for their multimodal visualization. Here, biocompatibility of iron nanoparticles coated with graphite-like shell and labeled with Alexa 647 fluorescent marker has been investigated. METHODS Iron core nanoparticles with intact carbon shells were purified by magnetoseparation after hydrochloric acid treatment. The structure of the NPs (nanoparticles) was examined with a high resolution electron microscopy. The surface of the NPs was alkylcarboxylated and further aminated for covalent linking with Alexa Fluor 647 fluorochrome to produce modified fluorescent magnetic nanoparticles (MFMNPs). Live fluorescent imaging and correlative light-electron microscopy were used to study the NPs intracellular distribution and the effects of constant magnetic field on internalized NPs in the cell culture were analyzed. Cell viability was assayed by measuring a proliferative pool with Click-IT labeling. RESULTS The microstructure and magnetic properties of superparamagnetic Fe@C core-shell NPs as well as their endocytosis by living tumor cells, and behavior inside the cells in constant magnetic field (150 mT) were studied. Correlative light-electron microscopy demonstrated that NPs retained their microstructure after internalization by the living cells. Application of constant magnetic field caused orientation of internalized NPs along power lines thus demonstrating their magnetocontrollability. Carbon onion-like shells make these NPs biocompatible and enable long-term observation with confocal microscope. It was found that iron core of NPs shows no toxic effect on the cell physiology, does not inhibit the cell proliferation and also does not induce apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS Non-toxic, biologically compatible superparamagnetic fluorescent MFMNPs can be further used for biological application such as delivery of biologically active compounds both inside the cell and inside the whole organism, magnetic separation, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasiia Garanina
- GREMAN, UMR CNRS 7347, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France
- National University of Science and Technology «MISiS», 119049 Moscow, Russian Federation
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Igor Kireev
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Oxana Zhironkina
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Olga Strelkova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Anton Shakhov
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Irina Alieva
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Valery Davydov
- L. F. Vereshchagin Institute for High Pressure Physics of the RAS, 142190 Troitsk, Russian Federation
| | - Sankaran Murugesan
- Center for Technology Innovation, Baker Hughes a GE Company, Houston, TX 77040 USA
| | - Valery Khabashesku
- Center for Technology Innovation, Baker Hughes a GE Company, Houston, TX 77040 USA
| | - Alexander Majouga
- National University of Science and Technology «MISiS», 119049 Moscow, Russian Federation
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
- D. Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia, Moscow, 125047 Russian Federation
| | | | - Rustem Uzbekov
- Faculté de Médecine, Université François Rabelais, 37032 Tours, France
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119192 Moscow, Russian Federation
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Avidor-Reiss T, Fishman EL. It takes two (centrioles) to tango. Reproduction 2019; 157:R33-R51. [PMID: 30496124 PMCID: PMC6494718 DOI: 10.1530/rep-18-0350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cells that divide during embryo development require precisely two centrioles during interphase and four centrioles during mitosis. This precise number is maintained by allowing each centriole to nucleate only one centriole per cell cycle (i.e. centriole duplication). Yet, how the first cell of the embryo, the zygote, obtains two centrioles has remained a mystery in most mammals and insects. The mystery arose because the female gamete (oocyte) is thought to have no functional centrioles and the male gamete (spermatozoon) is thought to have only one functional centriole, resulting in a zygote with a single centriole. However, recent studies in fruit flies, beetles and mammals, including humans, suggest an alternative explanation: spermatozoa have a typical centriole and an atypical centriole. The sperm typical centriole has a normal structure but distinct protein composition, whereas the sperm atypical centriole is distinct in both. During fertilization, the atypical centriole is released into the zygote, nucleates a new centriole and participates in spindle pole formation. Thus, the spermatozoa's atypical centriole acts as a second centriole in the zygote. Here, we review centriole biology in general and especially in reproduction, we describe the discovery of the spermatozoon atypical centriole, and we provide an updated model for centriole inherence during sexual reproduction. While we focus on humans and other non-rodent mammals, we also provide a broader evolutionary perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomer Avidor-Reiss
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, 2801 W. Bancroft Rd., Wolfe Hall 4259, Toledo, OH 43606
| | - Emily L. Fishman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, 2801 W. Bancroft Rd., Wolfe Hall 4259, Toledo, OH 43606
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11
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Ilan Y. Microtubules: From understanding their dynamics to using them as potential therapeutic targets. J Cell Physiol 2018; 234:7923-7937. [PMID: 30536951 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.27978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Microtubules (MT) and actin microfilaments are dynamic cytoskeleton components involved in a range of intracellular processes. MTs play a role in cell division, beating of cilia and flagella, and intracellular transport. Over the past decades, much knowledge has been gained regarding MT function and structure, and its role in underlying disease progression. This makes MT potential therapeutic targets for various disorders. Disturbances in MT and their associated proteins are the underlying cause of diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, cancer, and several genetic diseases. Some of the advances in the field of MT research, as well as the potenti G beta gamma, is needed al uses of MT-targeting agents in various conditions have been reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaron Ilan
- Department of Medicine, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
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