1
|
Shrestha R, McCann T, Saravanan H, Lieberth J, Koirala P, Bloomekatz J. The myocardium utilizes a platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (Pdgfra)-phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling cascade to steer toward the midline during zebrafish heart tube formation. eLife 2023; 12:e85930. [PMID: 37921445 PMCID: PMC10651176 DOI: 10.7554/elife.85930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Coordinated cell movement is a fundamental process in organ formation. During heart development, bilateral myocardial precursors collectively move toward the midline (cardiac fusion) to form the primitive heart tube. Extrinsic influences such as the adjacent anterior endoderm are known to be required for cardiac fusion. We previously showed however, that the platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (Pdgfra) is also required for cardiac fusion (Bloomekatz et al., 2017). Nevertheless, an intrinsic mechanism that regulates myocardial movement has not been elucidated. Here, we show that the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) intracellular signaling pathway has an essential intrinsic role in the myocardium directing movement toward the midline. In vivo imaging further reveals midline-oriented dynamic myocardial membrane protrusions that become unpolarized in PI3K-inhibited zebrafish embryos where myocardial movements are misdirected and slower. Moreover, we find that PI3K activity is dependent on and interacts with Pdgfra to regulate myocardial movement. Together our findings reveal an intrinsic myocardial steering mechanism that responds to extrinsic cues during the initiation of cardiac development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rabina Shrestha
- Department of Biology, University of MississippiUniversityUnited States
| | - Tess McCann
- Department of Biology, University of MississippiUniversityUnited States
| | - Harini Saravanan
- Department of Biology, University of MississippiUniversityUnited States
| | - Jaret Lieberth
- Department of Biology, University of MississippiUniversityUnited States
| | - Prashanna Koirala
- Department of Biology, University of MississippiUniversityUnited States
| | - Joshua Bloomekatz
- Department of Biology, University of MississippiUniversityUnited States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Shrestha R, McCann T, Saravanan H, Lieberth J, Koirala P, Bloomekatz J. The myocardium utilizes Pdgfra-PI3K signaling to steer towards the midline during heart tube formation. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.03.522612. [PMID: 36712046 PMCID: PMC9881939 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.03.522612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Coordinated cell movement is a fundamental process in organ formation. During heart development, bilateral myocardial precursors collectively move towards the midline (cardiac fusion) to form the primitive heart tube. Along with extrinsic influences such as the adjacent anterior endoderm which are known to be required for cardiac fusion, we previously showed that the platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (Pdgfra) is also required. However, an intrinsic mechanism that regulates myocardial movement remains to be elucidated. Here, we uncover an essential intrinsic role in the myocardium for the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) intracellular signaling pathway in directing myocardial movement towards the midline. In vivo imaging reveals that in PI3K-inhibited zebrafish embryos myocardial movements are misdirected and slower, while midline-oriented dynamic myocardial membrane protrusions become unpolarized. Moreover, PI3K activity is dependent on and genetically interacts with Pdgfra to regulate myocardial movement. Together our findings reveal an intrinsic myocardial steering mechanism that responds to extrinsic cues during the initiation of cardiac development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rabina Shrestha
- Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677
| | - Tess McCann
- Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677
| | - Harini Saravanan
- Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677
| | - Jaret Lieberth
- Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677
| | - Prashanna Koirala
- Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677
| | - Joshua Bloomekatz
- Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Banzai K, Nishimura T. Isolation of a novel missense mutation in insulin receptor as a spontaneous revertant in ImpL2 mutants in Drosophila. Development 2023; 150:285910. [PMID: 36504086 DOI: 10.1242/dev.201248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Evolutionarily conserved insulin/insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling (IIS) correlates nutrient levels to metabolism and growth, thereby playing crucial roles in development and adult fitness. In the fruit fly Drosophila, ImpL2, an ortholog of IGFBP7, binds to and inhibits the function of Drosophila insulin-like peptides. In this study, we isolated a temperature-sensitive mutation in the insulin receptor (InR) gene as a spontaneous revertant in ImpL2 null mutants. The p.Y902C missense mutation is located at the functionally conserved amino acid residue of the first fibronectin type III domain of InR. The hypomorphic InR mutant animals showed a temperature-dependent reduction in IIS and body size. The mutant animals also exhibited metabolic defects, such as increased triglyceride and carbohydrate levels. Metabolomic analysis further revealed that defects in InR caused dysregulation of amino acid and ribonucleotide metabolism. We also observed that InR mutant females produced tiny irregular-shaped embryos with reduced fecundity. In summary, this novel allele of InR is a valuable tool for the Drosophila genetic model of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kota Banzai
- Laboratory for Growth Control Signaling, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), Kobe, Hyogo 650-0047, Japan
| | - Takashi Nishimura
- Laboratory for Growth Control Signaling, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), Kobe, Hyogo 650-0047, Japan.,Laboratory of Metabolic Regulation and Genetics, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8512, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Live imaging of delamination in Drosophila shows epithelial cell motility and invasiveness are independently regulated. Sci Rep 2022; 12:16210. [PMID: 36171357 PMCID: PMC9519887 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-20492-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Delaminating cells undergo complex, precisely regulated changes in cell–cell adhesion, motility, polarity, invasiveness, and other cellular properties. Delamination occurs during development and in pathogenic conditions such as cancer metastasis. We analyzed the requirements for epithelial delamination in Drosophila ovary border cells, which detach from the structured epithelial layer and begin to migrate collectively. We used live imaging to examine cellular dynamics, particularly epithelial cells’ acquisition of motility and invasiveness, in delamination-defective mutants during the time period in which delamination occurs in the wild-type ovary. We found that border cells in slow border cells (slbo), a delamination-defective mutant, lacked invasive cellular protrusions but acquired basic cellular motility, while JAK/STAT-inhibited border cells lost both invasiveness and motility. Our results indicate that invasiveness and motility, which are cooperatively required for delamination, are regulated independently. Our reconstruction experiments also showed that motility is not a prerequisite for acquiring invasiveness.
Collapse
|
5
|
Hui J, Stjepić V, Nakamura M, Parkhurst SM. Wrangling Actin Assemblies: Actin Ring Dynamics during Cell Wound Repair. Cells 2022; 11:2777. [PMID: 36139352 PMCID: PMC9497110 DOI: 10.3390/cells11182777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To cope with continuous physiological and environmental stresses, cells of all sizes require an effective wound repair process to seal breaches to their cortex. Once a wound is recognized, the cell must rapidly plug the injury site, reorganize the cytoskeleton and the membrane to pull the wound closed, and finally remodel the cortex to return to homeostasis. Complementary studies using various model organisms have demonstrated the importance and complexity behind the formation and translocation of an actin ring at the wound periphery during the repair process. Proteins such as actin nucleators, actin bundling factors, actin-plasma membrane anchors, and disassembly factors are needed to regulate actin ring dynamics spatially and temporally. Notably, Rho family GTPases have been implicated throughout the repair process, whereas other proteins are required during specific phases. Interestingly, although different models share a similar set of recruited proteins, the way in which they use them to pull the wound closed can differ. Here, we describe what is currently known about the formation, translocation, and remodeling of the actin ring during the cell wound repair process in model organisms, as well as the overall impact of cell wound repair on daily events and its importance to our understanding of certain diseases and the development of therapeutic delivery modalities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Susan M. Parkhurst
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Nakamura M, Verboon JM, Allen TE, Abreu-Blanco MT, Liu R, Dominguez ANM, Delrow JJ, Parkhurst SM. Autocrine insulin pathway signaling regulates actin dynamics in cell wound repair. PLoS Genet 2020; 16:e1009186. [PMID: 33306674 PMCID: PMC7758051 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Cells are exposed to frequent mechanical and/or chemical stressors that can compromise the integrity of the plasma membrane and underlying cortical cytoskeleton. The molecular mechanisms driving the immediate repair response launched to restore the cell cortex and circumvent cell death are largely unknown. Using microarrays and drug-inhibition studies to assess gene expression, we find that initiation of cell wound repair in the Drosophila model is dependent on translation, whereas transcription is required for subsequent steps. We identified 253 genes whose expression is up-regulated (80) or down-regulated (173) in response to laser wounding. A subset of these genes were validated using RNAi knockdowns and exhibit aberrant actomyosin ring assembly and/or actin remodeling defects. Strikingly, we find that the canonical insulin signaling pathway controls actin dynamics through the actin regulators Girdin and Chickadee (profilin), and its disruption leads to abnormal wound repair. Our results provide new insight for understanding how cell wound repair proceeds in healthy individuals and those with diseases involving wound healing deficiencies. Organisms are constantly subject to damage by physiological and environmental stresses at the cell, tissue, and organ levels. While organisms have robust repair systems to survive from such damage, the underlying molecular mechanisms for these different scales of repair are different. Using microarray analyses and pharmacological assays with the Drosophila model, we examined the requirements for transcription and translation during cell wound repair. We find that translation, rather than transcription, is needed for the initial steps of cell wound repair. Transcription is required for the later steps of the repair process. We have successfully identified and verified 80 up-regulated and 173 down-regulated genes, most of which are new players in cell wound repair. A number of these genes function to regulate cytoskeleton dynamics at different steps of cell repair process. Interestingly, a subset of these genes encode components of the insulin signaling pathway. While insulin signaling is required for tissue and organ wound repair, we find that a canonical insulin pathway is activated upon wounding in the repair of individual cells as well. Our results provide new insight for understanding how cell wound repair proceeds in healthy individuals and those with diseases involving wound healing deficiencies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mitsutoshi Nakamura
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey M. Verboon
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Tessa E. Allen
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Maria Teresa Abreu-Blanco
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Raymond Liu
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Andrew N. M. Dominguez
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey J. Delrow
- Genomics Shared Resource, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Susan M. Parkhurst
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Pimm ML, Hotaling J, Henty-Ridilla JL. Profilin choreographs actin and microtubules in cells and cancer. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2020; 355:155-204. [PMID: 32859370 PMCID: PMC7461721 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2020.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Actin and microtubules play essential roles in aberrant cell processes that define and converge in cancer including: signaling, morphology, motility, and division. Actin and microtubules do not directly interact, however shared regulators coordinate these polymers. While many of the individual proteins important for regulating and choreographing actin and microtubule behaviors have been identified, the way these molecules collaborate or fail in normal or disease contexts is not fully understood. Decades of research focus on Profilin as a signaling molecule, lipid-binding protein, and canonical regulator of actin assembly. Recent reports demonstrate that Profilin also regulates microtubule dynamics and polymerization. Thus, Profilin can coordinate both actin and microtubule polymer systems. Here we reconsider the biochemical and cellular roles for Profilin with a focus on the essential cytoskeletal-based cell processes that go awry in cancer. We also explore how the use of model organisms has helped to elucidate mechanisms that underlie the regulatory essence of Profilin in vivo and in the context of disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Morgan L Pimm
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, State University of New York (SUNY) Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - Jessica Hotaling
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, State University of New York (SUNY) Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - Jessica L Henty-Ridilla
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, State University of New York (SUNY) Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, State University of New York (SUNY) Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Profilin is a ubiquitously expressed protein well known as a key regulator of actin polymerisation. The actin cytoskeleton is involved in almost all cellular processes including motility, endocytosis, metabolism, signal transduction and gene transcription. Hence, profilin's role in the cell goes beyond its direct and essential function in regulating actin dynamics. This review will focus on the interactions of Profilin 1 and its ligands at the plasma membrane, in the cytoplasm and the nucleus of the cells and the regulation of profilin activity within those cell compartments. We will discuss the interactions of profilin in cell signalling pathways and highlight the importance of the cell context in the multiple functions that this small essential protein has in conjunction with its role in cytoskeletal organisation and dynamics. We will review some of the mechanisms that control profilin expression and the implications of changed expression of profilin in the light of cancer biology and other pathologies.
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
As the crucial non-cellular component of tissues, the extracellular matrix (ECM) provides both physical support and signaling regulation to cells. Some ECM molecules provide a fibrillar environment around cells, while others provide a sheet-like basement membrane scaffold beneath epithelial cells. In this Review, we focus on recent studies investigating the mechanical, biophysical and signaling cues provided to developing tissues by different types of ECM in a variety of developing organisms. In addition, we discuss how the ECM helps to regulate tissue morphology during embryonic development by governing key elements of cell shape, adhesion, migration and differentiation. Summary: This Review discusses our current understanding of how the extracellular matrix helps guide developing tissues by influencing cell adhesion, migration, shape and differentiation, emphasizing the biophysical cues it provides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David A Cruz Walma
- Cell Biology Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4370, USA
| | - Kenneth M Yamada
- Cell Biology Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4370, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Bernasek SM, Peláez N, Carthew RW, Bagheri N, Amaral LAN. Fly-QMA: Automated analysis of mosaic imaginal discs in Drosophila. PLoS Comput Biol 2020; 16:e1007406. [PMID: 32126077 PMCID: PMC7100978 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosaic analysis provides a means to probe developmental processes in situ by generating loss-of-function mutants within otherwise wildtype tissues. Combining these techniques with quantitative microscopy enables researchers to rigorously compare RNA or protein expression across the resultant clones. However, visual inspection of mosaic tissues remains common in the literature because quantification demands considerable labor and computational expertise. Practitioners must segment cell membranes or cell nuclei from a tissue and annotate the clones before their data are suitable for analysis. Here, we introduce Fly-QMA, a computational framework that automates each of these tasks for confocal microscopy images of Drosophila imaginal discs. The framework includes an unsupervised annotation algorithm that incorporates spatial context to inform the genetic identity of each cell. We use a combination of real and synthetic validation data to survey the performance of the annotation algorithm across a broad range of conditions. By contributing our framework to the open-source software ecosystem, we aim to contribute to the current move toward automated quantitative analysis among developmental biologists.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian M. Bernasek
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- NSF-Simons Center for Quantitative Biology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Nicolás Peláez
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Richard W. Carthew
- NSF-Simons Center for Quantitative Biology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Neda Bagheri
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- NSF-Simons Center for Quantitative Biology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Luís A. N. Amaral
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- NSF-Simons Center for Quantitative Biology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Sizes of actin networks sharing a common environment are determined by the relative rates of assembly. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000317. [PMID: 31181075 PMCID: PMC6586355 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Within the cytoplasm of a single cell, several actin networks can coexist with distinct sizes, geometries, and protein compositions. These actin networks assemble in competition for a limited pool of proteins present in a common cellular environment. To predict how two distinct networks of actin filaments control this balance, the simultaneous assembly of actin-related protein 2/3 (Arp2/3)-branched networks and formin-linear networks of actin filaments around polystyrene microbeads was investigated with a range of actin accessory proteins (profilin, capping protein, actin-depolymerizing factor [ADF]/cofilin, and tropomyosin). Accessory proteins generally affected actin assembly rates for the distinct networks differently. These effects at the scale of individual actin networks were surprisingly not always correlated with corresponding loss-of-function phenotypes in cells. However, our observations agreed with a global interpretation, which compared relative actin assembly rates of individual actin networks. This work supports a general model in which the size of distinct actin networks is determined by their relative capacity to assemble in a common and competing environment. A biomimetic assay using polystyrene beads compares the rates of actin assembly on linear and branched networks, revealing how the size of rival actin networks in cells is regulated by their relative capacity to assemble in a common environment.
Collapse
|
12
|
Sharma A, Halder S, Felix M, Nisaa K, Deshpande G, Prasad M. Insulin signaling modulates border cell movement in Drosophila oogenesis. Development 2018; 145:dev166165. [PMID: 29950391 PMCID: PMC6078333 DOI: 10.1242/dev.166165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
As collective cell migration is intimately involved in different aspects of metazoan development, molecular mechanisms underlying this process are being explored in a variety of developmental contexts. Border cell (BC) migration during Drosophila oogenesis has emerged as an excellent genetic model for studying collective cell migration. BCs are of epithelial origin but acquire partial mesenchymal characteristics before migrating as a group towards the oocyte. Here, we report that insulin signaling modulates collective BC movement during Drosophila oogenesis. Supporting the involvement of Insulin pathway, we demonstrate that compromising Insulin-like Receptor (InR) levels in BCs, inhibits their migration. Furthermore, we show that canonical Insulin signaling pathway components participate in this process. Interestingly, visualization of InR-depleted BC clusters, using time-lapse imaging, revealed a delay in detachment of BC clusters from the surrounding anterior follicle cells and altered protrusion dynamics. Lastly, based on genetic interactions between InR, the polarity determinant, par-1 and a regulatory subunit of Drosophila Myosin (spaghetti squash), we propose that Insulin signaling likely influences par-1 activity to engineer border cell detachment and subsequent movement via Drosophila Myosin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aditi Sharma
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur Campus, Mohanpur, 741246 Nadia, West Bengal, India
| | - Sudipta Halder
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur Campus, Mohanpur, 741246 Nadia, West Bengal, India
| | - Martina Felix
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur Campus, Mohanpur, 741246 Nadia, West Bengal, India
| | - Khairun Nisaa
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur Campus, Mohanpur, 741246 Nadia, West Bengal, India
| | - Girish Deshpande
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune, 411 008 Pune, Maharashtra, India
| | - Mohit Prasad
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur Campus, Mohanpur, 741246 Nadia, West Bengal, India
| |
Collapse
|