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Sundaram MV, Pujol N. The Caenorhabditis elegans cuticle and precuticle: a model for studying dynamic apical extracellular matrices in vivo. Genetics 2024; 227:iyae072. [PMID: 38995735 PMCID: PMC11304992 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyae072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Apical extracellular matrices (aECMs) coat the exposed surfaces of animal bodies to shape tissues, influence social interactions, and protect against pathogens and other environmental challenges. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, collagenous cuticle and zona pellucida protein-rich precuticle aECMs alternately coat external epithelia across the molt cycle and play many important roles in the worm's development, behavior, and physiology. Both these types of aECMs contain many matrix proteins related to those in vertebrates, as well as some that are nematode-specific. Extensive differences observed among tissues and life stages demonstrate that aECMs are a major feature of epithelial cell identity. In addition to forming discrete layers, some cuticle components assemble into complex substructures such as ridges, furrows, and nanoscale pillars. The epidermis and cuticle are mechanically linked, allowing the epidermis to sense cuticle damage and induce protective innate immune and stress responses. The C. elegans model, with its optical transparency, facilitates the study of aECM cell biology and structure/function relationships and all the myriad ways by which aECM can influence an organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meera V Sundaram
- Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Nathalie Pujol
- Aix Marseille University, INSERM, CNRS, CIML, Turing Centre for Living Systems, 13009 Marseille, France
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Kiontke K, Fernandez P, Woronik A, Fitch DHA. Morphologically defined substages of tail morphogenesis in C. elegans males. Dev Dyn 2024. [PMID: 38924277 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sex-specific morphogenesis occurs in Caenorhabditis elegans in the vulva of the hermaphrodite and in the male tail during the last larval stage. Temporal progression of vulva morphogenesis has been described in fine detail. However, a similar precise description of male tail morphogenesis was lacking. RESULTS We here describe morphogenesis of the male tail at time points matching vulva development with special focus on morphogenesis of the tail tip. Using fluorescent reporters, we follow changes in cell shapes, cell fusions, nuclear migration, modifications in the basement membrane, and formation of a new apical extracellular matrix at the end of the tail. CONCLUSION Our analysis answers two open questions about tail tip morphogenesis (TTM) by showing that one of the four tail tip cells, hyp11, remains largely separate, while the other cells fully fuse with each other and with two additional tail cells to form a ventral tail syncytium. This merger of cells begins at the apical surface early during TTM but is only completed toward the end of the process. This work provides a framework for future investigations of cell biological factors that drive male tail morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Kiontke
- Department of Biology, New York University, New York, New York, USA
| | | | | | - David H A Fitch
- Department of Biology, New York University, New York, New York, USA
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Ragle JM, Turzo A, Levenson MT, Jonnalagadda K, Jackson A, Vo AA, Pham VT, Ward JD. MLT-11 is a transient apical extracellular matrix component required for cuticle patterning and function. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.12.593762. [PMID: 38766248 PMCID: PMC11100798 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.12.593762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Apical extracellular matrices (aECMs) are associated with all epithelia and form a protective layer against biotic and abiotic threats in the environment. Despite their importance, we lack a deep understanding of their structure and dynamics in development and disease. C. elegans molting offers a powerful entry point to understanding developmentally programmed aECM remodeling. A transient matrix is formed in embryos and at the end of each larval stage, presumably to pattern the new cuticle. Focusing on targets of NHR-23, a key transcription factor which drives molting, we identified the Kunitz family protease inhibitor gene mlt-11 as an NHR-23 target. We identified NHR-23-binding sites that are necessary and sufficient for epithelial expression. mlt-11 is necessary to pattern every layer of the adult cuticle, suggesting a broad patterning role prior to the formation of the mature cuticle. MLT-11::mNeonGreen::3xFLAG transiently localized to the aECM in the cuticle and embryo. It was also detected in lining openings to the exterior (vulva, rectum, mouth). Reduction of mlt-11 function disrupted the barrier function of the cuticle. Tissue-specific RNAi suggested mlt-11 activity is primarily necessary in seam cells and we observed alae and seam cell fusion defects upon mlt-11 inactivation. Predicted mlt-11 null mutations caused fully penetrant embryonic lethality and elongation defects suggesting mlt-11 also plays an important role in patterning the embryonic sheath. Finally, we found that mlt-11 inactivation suppressed the blistered cuticle phenotype of mutants of bli-4 mutants, a subtilisin protease gene but did not affect BLI-4::sfGFP expression. These data could suggest that MLT-11 may be necessary to assure proper levels of BLI-4 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Matthew Ragle
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Ariela Turzo
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Max T. Levenson
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Keya Jonnalagadda
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Anton Jackson
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - An A. Vo
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Vivian T. Pham
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Jordan D. Ward
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
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Binti S, Edeen PT, Fay DS. Loss of the Na + /K + cation pump CATP-1 suppresses nekl -associated molting defects. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.15.585189. [PMID: 38559007 PMCID: PMC10979969 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.15.585189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
The conserved C. elegans protein kinases NEKL-2 and NEKL-3 regulate multiple steps of membrane trafficking and are required for larval molting. Through a forward genetic screen we identified a loss-of-function mutation in catp-1 as a suppressor of molting defects in synthetically lethal nekl-2; nekl-3 double mutants. catp-1 is predicted to encode a membrane- associated P4-type ATPase involved in Na + -K + exchange. Moreover, a mutation predicted to abolish CATP-1 ion-pump activity also suppressed nekl-2; nekl-3 mutants. Endogenously tagged CATP-1 was primarily expressed in epidermal (hypodermal) cells within punctate structures located at or near the apical plasma membrane. Through whole genome sequencing, we identified two additional nekl-2; nekl-3 suppressor strains containing coding-altering mutations in catp-1 but found that neither mutation, when introduced into nekl-2; nekl-3 mutants using CRISPR methods, was sufficient to elicit robust suppression of molting defects. Our data also suggested that the two catp-1 isoforms, catp-1a and catp-1b , may in some contexts be functionally redundant. On the basis of previously published studies, we tested the hypothesis that loss of catp-1 may suppress nekl -associated defects by inducing partial entry into the dauer pathway. Contrary to expectations, however, we failed to obtain evidence that loss of catp-1 suppresses nekl-2; nekl-3 defects through a dauer-associated mechanism or that loss of catp-1 leads to entry into the pre-dauer L2d stage. As such, loss of catp-1 may suppress nekl- associated molting and membrane trafficking defects by altering electrochemical gradients within membrane-bound compartments.
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Hiroki S, Yoshitane H. Ror homolog nhr-23 is essential for both developmental clock and circadian clock in C. elegans. Commun Biol 2024; 7:243. [PMID: 38418700 PMCID: PMC10902330 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-05894-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Animals have internal clocks that generate biological rhythms. In mammals, clock genes such as Period form the circadian clock to generate approximately 24-h biological rhythms. In C. elegans, the clock gene homologs constitute the "developmental clock", which has an 8-h period during larval development to determine the timing of molting. Thus, the ancestral circadian clock has been believed to evolve into the oscillator with a shorter period in C. elegans. However, circadian rhythms have also been observed in adult C. elegans, albeit relatively weak. This prompts the question: if the clock gene homologs drive the developmental rhythm with 8-h period, which genes generate the circadian rhythms in C. elegans? In this study, we discovered that nhr-23, a homolog of the mammalian circadian clock gene Ror, is essential for circadian transcriptional rhythms in adult C. elegans. Interestingly, nhr-23 was also known to be essential for the molting clock. The bilaterian ancestral circadian clock genes might have evolved to function over multiple periods depending on developmental contexts rather than a single 8-h period in C. elegans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shingo Hiroki
- Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Sciences, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Hikari Yoshitane
- Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Sciences, Tokyo, Japan.
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
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Zhang P, Xue B, Yang H, Zhang L. Transcriptome Responses to Different Salinity Conditions in Litoditis marina, Revealed by Long-Read Sequencing. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:317. [PMID: 38540376 PMCID: PMC10970011 DOI: 10.3390/genes15030317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The marine nematode Litoditis marina is widely distributed in intertidal zones around the globe, yet the mechanisms underlying its broad adaptation to salinity remain elusive. In this study, we applied ONT long-read sequencing technology to unravel the transcriptome responses to different salinity conditions in L. marina. Through ONT sequencing under 3‱, 30‱ and 60‱ salinity environments, we obtained 131.78 G clean data and 26,647 non-redundant long-read transcripts, including 6464 novel transcripts. The DEGs obtained from the current ONT lrRNA-seq were highly correlated with those identified in our previously reported Illumina short-read RNA sequencing data. When we compared the 30‱ to the 3‱ salinity condition, we found that GO terms such as oxidoreductase activity, cation transmembrane transport and ion transmembrane transport were shared between the ONT lrRNA-seq and Illumina data. Similarly, GO terms including extracellular space, structural constituents of cuticle, substrate-specific channel activity, ion transport and substrate-specific transmembrane transporter activity were shared between the ONT and Illumina data under 60‱ compared to 30‱ salinity. In addition, we found that 79 genes significantly increased, while 119 genes significantly decreased, as the salinity increased. Furthermore, through the GO enrichment analysis of 214 genes containing DAS, in 30‱ compared to 3‱ salinity, we found that GO terms such as cellular component assembly and coenzyme biosynthetic process were enriched. Additionally, we observed that GO terms such as cellular component assembly and coenzyme biosynthetic process were also enriched in 60‱ compared to 30‱ salinity. Moreover, we found that 86, 125, and 81 genes that contained DAS were also DEGs, in comparisons between 30‱ and 3‱, 60‱ and 30‱, and 60‱ and 3‱ salinity, respectively. In addition, we demonstrated the landscape of alternative polyadenylation in marine nematode under different salinity conditions This report provides several novel insights for the further study of the mechanisms by which euryhalinity formed and evolved, and it might also contribute to the investigation of salinity dynamics induced by global climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengchi Zhang
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (P.Z.); (B.X.); (H.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Beining Xue
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (P.Z.); (B.X.); (H.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hanwen Yang
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (P.Z.); (B.X.); (H.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Liusuo Zhang
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (P.Z.); (B.X.); (H.Y.)
- Laboratory of Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266071, China
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Myles KM, Clancy JC, Johnson LC, Ashley G, Manzano J, Ragle JM, Ward JD. An nhr-85::GFP::AID*::3xFLAG knock-in allele for investigation of molting and oscillatory gene regulation. MICROPUBLICATION BIOLOGY 2023; 2023:10.17912/micropub.biology.000993. [PMID: 37927911 PMCID: PMC10620605 DOI: 10.17912/micropub.biology.000993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
C. elegans NHR-85 is a poorly characterized nuclear hormone receptor transcription factor with an emerging role in regulating microRNA expression to control developmental timing. We generated the first NHR-85 translational fusion by knocking a GFP::AID*::3xFLAG cassette into the endogenous locus to tag all known isoforms. nhr-85 ::GFP::AID*::3xFLAG animals have wild-type broodsizes and NHR-85 ::GFP peaks in expression at the start of the L4 stage in epithelial cells. NHR-85 is not expressed in the germline, suggesting that while it might cooperate with the NHR-23 transcription factor to control microRNA expression, NHR-23 promotes spermatogenesis independent of NHR-85 . This nhr-85 ::GFP::AID*::3xFLAG strain will be a valuable resource for studying when and where NHR-85 acts to promote developmental timing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krista M. Myles
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States
| | - John C. Clancy
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States
| | - Londen C. Johnson
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States
| | - Guinevere Ashley
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States
| | - Jesus Manzano
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States
| | - James Matthew Ragle
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States
| | - Jordan D. Ward
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States
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Myles KM, Vo AA, Ragle JM, Ward JD. A spontaneous TIR1 loss-of-function allele in C. elegans. MICROPUBLICATION BIOLOGY 2023; 2023:10.17912/micropub.biology.000994. [PMID: 37908494 PMCID: PMC10613879 DOI: 10.17912/micropub.biology.000994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
The auxin-inducible degron (AID) system is a widely-used system for conditional protein depletion. During the course of an experiment, we depleted the nuclear hormone receptor transcription factor NHR-23 to study molting, and we recovered a spontaneous suppressor allele that bypassed the L1 larval arrest caused by NHR-23 depletion. These mutants also failed to deplete a BFP::AID reporter in the strain background, suggesting a broader defect in the AID system. These animals carried an in-frame 18 base pair insertion that produced a 6 amino acid repeat in TIR1. The larval arrest in these animals could be restored by expressing a wild-type TIR1 transgene from an extrachromosomal array. Sister siblings that lost this array developed normally on auxin. Together, these experiments indicate that the TIR1 mutation was causing the loss of developmental arrest in the nhr-23::AID strain. This result highlights the importance of setting up a robust secondary screen to detect such mutants if performing forward genetic screens in conjunction with the AID system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krista M. Myles
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States
| | - An A. Vo
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States
| | - James Matthew Ragle
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States
| | - Jordan D. Ward
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States
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Myles KM, Ragle JM, Ward JD. An nhr-23::mScarlet::3xMyc knock-in allele for studying spermatogenesis and molting. MICROPUBLICATION BIOLOGY 2023; 2023:10.17912/micropub.biology.000996. [PMID: 37854098 PMCID: PMC10580079 DOI: 10.17912/micropub.biology.000996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
C. elegans NHR-23 is a nuclear hormone receptor transcription factor involved in molting, apical extracellular matrix structure, and spermatogenesis. To determine NHR-23 expression dynamics, we previously tagged the endogenous nhr-23 locus with a GFP::AID*::3xFLAG tag. To allow co-localization of NHR-23 with green fluorescent protein-tagged factors of interest, we generated an equivalent strain carrying an mScarlet::3xMyc tag to produce a C-terminal fusion. Similar to the GFP::AID*::3xFLAG knock-in, NHR-23 ::mScarlet::3xMyc was expressed in seam and hypodermal cells, vulval precursor cells, and the spermatogenic germline. We also observed a diffuse NHR-23::mScarlet expression pattern in spermatids and residual bodies after NHR-23 ceased to localize on chromatin. Further examination of this novel localization may provide insight into NHR-23 regulation of spermatogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krista M. Myles
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064
| | - James Matthew Ragle
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064
| | - Jordan D. Ward
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064
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Clancy JC, Vo AA, Myles KM, Levenson MT, Ragle JM, Ward JD. Experimental considerations for study of C. elegans lysosomal proteins. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2023; 13:jkad032. [PMID: 36748711 PMCID: PMC10085801 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkad032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Lysosomes are an important organelle required for the degradation of a range of cellular components. Lysosome function is critical for development and homeostasis as dysfunction can lead to inherited genetic disorders, cancer, and neurodegenerative and metabolic diseases. The acidic and protease-rich environment of lysosomes poses experimental challenges. Many fluorescent proteins are quenched or degraded, while specific red fluorescent proteins can be cleaved from translational fusion partners and accumulate. While studying MLT-11, a Caenorhabditis elegans molting factor that localizes to lysosomes and the cuticle, we sought to optimize several experimental parameters. We found that, in contrast to mNeonGreen fusions, mScarlet fusions to MLT-11 missed cuticular and rectal epithelial localization. Rapid sample lysis and denaturation were critical for preventing MLT-11 fragmentation while preparing lysates for western blots. Using a model lysosomal substrate (NUC-1), we found that rigid polyproline linkers and truncated mCherry constructs do not prevent cleavage of mCherry from NUC-1. We provide evidence that extended localization in lysosomal environments prevents the detection of FLAG epitopes in western blots. Finally, we optimize an acid-tolerant green fluorescent protein (Gamillus) for use in C. elegans. These experiments provide important experimental considerations and new reagents for the study of C. elegans lysosomal proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C Clancy
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - An A Vo
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Krista M Myles
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Max T Levenson
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - James Matthew Ragle
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Jordan D Ward
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
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