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Sharma V, Madia VN, Tudino V, Nguyen JV, Debnath A, Messore A, Ialongo D, Patacchini E, Palenca I, Basili Franzin S, Seguella L, Esposito G, Petrucci R, Di Matteo P, Bortolami M, Saccoliti F, Di Santo R, Scipione L, Costi R, Podust LM. Miconazole-like Scaffold is a Promising Lead for Naegleria fowleri-Specific CYP51 Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2023; 66:17059-17073. [PMID: 38085955 PMCID: PMC10758121 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
Developing drugs for brain infection by Naegleria fowleri is an unmet medical need. We used a combination of cheminformatics, target-, and phenotypic-based drug discovery methods to identify inhibitors that target an essential N. fowleri enzyme, sterol 14-demethylase (NfCYP51). A total of 124 compounds preselected in silico were tested against N. fowleri. Nine primary hits with EC50 ≤ 10 μM were phenotypically identified. Cocrystallization with NfCYP51 focused attention on one primary hit, miconazole-like compound 2a. The S-enantiomer of 2a produced a 1.74 Å cocrystal structure. A set of analogues was then synthesized and evaluated to confirm the superiority of the S-configuration over the R-configuration and the advantage of an ether linkage over an ester linkage. The two compounds, S-8b and S-9b, had an improved EC50 and KD compared to 2a. Importantly, both were readily taken up into the brain. The brain-to-plasma distribution coefficient of S-9b was 1.02 ± 0.12, suggesting further evaluation as a lead for primary amoebic meningoencephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vandna Sharma
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Discovery
and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University
of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Valentina Noemi Madia
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci
Bolognetti, “Sapienza” Università
di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome I-00185, Italy
| | - Valeria Tudino
- Dipartimento
di Biotecnologie, Università degli
Studi di Siena, Chimica e Farmacia via Aldo Moro 2, Siena 53100, Italy
| | - Jennifer V. Nguyen
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Discovery
and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University
of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Anjan Debnath
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Discovery
and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University
of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Antonella Messore
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci
Bolognetti, “Sapienza” Università
di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome I-00185, Italy
| | - Davide Ialongo
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci
Bolognetti, “Sapienza” Università
di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome I-00185, Italy
| | - Elisa Patacchini
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci
Bolognetti, “Sapienza” Università
di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome I-00185, Italy
| | - Irene Palenca
- Department
of Physiology and Pharmacology “V. Erspamer”, “Sapienza″ Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome I-00185, Italy
| | - Silvia Basili Franzin
- Department
of Physiology and Pharmacology “V. Erspamer”, “Sapienza″ Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome I-00185, Italy
| | - Luisa Seguella
- Department
of Physiology and Pharmacology “V. Erspamer”, “Sapienza″ Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome I-00185, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Esposito
- Department
of Physiology and Pharmacology “V. Erspamer”, “Sapienza″ Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome I-00185, Italy
| | - Rita Petrucci
- Dipartimento
di Scienze di Base e Applicate per l’Ingegneria, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, Via Castro Laurenziano 7, Rome 00161, Italy
| | - Paola Di Matteo
- Dipartimento
di Scienze di Base e Applicate per l’Ingegneria, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, Via Castro Laurenziano 7, Rome 00161, Italy
| | - Martina Bortolami
- Dipartimento
di Scienze di Base e Applicate per l’Ingegneria, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, Via Castro Laurenziano 7, Rome 00161, Italy
| | - Francesco Saccoliti
- D3 PharmaChemistry, Italian
Institute of Technology, Via Morego 30, Genova 16163, Italy
| | - Roberto Di Santo
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci
Bolognetti, “Sapienza” Università
di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome I-00185, Italy
| | - Luigi Scipione
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci
Bolognetti, “Sapienza” Università
di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome I-00185, Italy
| | - Roberta Costi
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci
Bolognetti, “Sapienza” Università
di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome I-00185, Italy
| | - Larissa M. Podust
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Discovery
and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, University
of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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2
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Crilly S, McMahon E, Kasher PR. Zebrafish for modeling stroke and their applicability for drug discovery and development. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2022; 17:559-568. [PMID: 35587689 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2022.2072828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The global health burden of stroke is significant and few therapeutic treatment options currently exist for patients. Pre-clinical research relies heavily on rodent stroke models but the limitations associated with using these systems alone has meant translation of drug compounds to the clinic has not been greatly successful to date. Zebrafish disease modeling offers a potentially complementary platform for pre-clinical compound screening to aid the drug discovery process for translational stroke research. AREAS COVERED In this review, the authors introduce stroke and describe the issues associated with the current pre-clinical drug development pipeline and the advantages that zebrafish disease modeling can offer. Existing zebrafish models of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke are reviewed. Examples of how zebrafish models have been utilized for drug discovery in other disease disciplines are also discussed. EXPERT OPINION Zebrafish disease modeling holds the capacity and potential to significantly enhance the stroke drug development pipeline. However, for this system to be more widely accepted and incorporated into translational stroke research, continued improvement of the existing zebrafish stroke models, as well as focussed collaboration between zebrafish and stroke researchers, is essential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siobhan Crilly
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.,Geoffrey Jefferson Brain Research Centre, the Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Northern Care Alliance & University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Emily McMahon
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.,Geoffrey Jefferson Brain Research Centre, the Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Northern Care Alliance & University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Paul R Kasher
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.,Geoffrey Jefferson Brain Research Centre, the Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Northern Care Alliance & University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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Zhang M, Meng X, Pan Y, Wang Y, Zhao X, Liu L, Li J, Yan H, Liu X, Zhang H, Pang L, Wang Y. Predictive values of Baseline MMP9 Levels in Peripheral Blood on 3-Month outcomes of high-risk patients with minor stroke or TIA. Eur J Neurol 2022; 29:2976-2986. [PMID: 35357766 DOI: 10.1111/ene.15342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To explore the relationship between baseline levels of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) in peripheral blood and the outcomes in patients with acute minor stroke and transient ischemic attack (TIA). METHODS We assessed data from patients with acute minor ischemic stroke or TIA who were included in the CHANCE trial. Baseline level of MMP9 in peripheral blood is classified into five quintiles. We assessed the relationship between the baseline MMP9 and outcomes of stroke recurrence, composite vascular events, and poor functional outcomes within 90 days after stroke onset. RESULTS Of the 3014 patients included, 295 (9.79%) had recurrent stroke, 289 (9.59%) had recurrent ischemic stroke, 297 (9.85%) had combined vascular events, and 199 (6.64%) had poor functional outcomes within 90 days. Using MMP9 concentrations near HR = 1 (Q3) in restricted cubic splines as the reference. The result showed that, compared to patients in Q3 group, patients in the highest quintile (Q5 group) had an increased risk of poor functional outcomes at 90 days after adjusted the risk factors and confounders (P = 0.030), may be associated with an increased risk of combined vascular events (P = 0.052). Using Cox regression models or logistic regression models with restricted cubic spline, we also observed that higher MMP9 ratios were associated with an increased risk of stroke recurrence, combined events, and poor functional outcomes at a range of concentrations. CONCLUSIONS For patients with acute minor stroke or TIA, higher baseline MMP9 level was associated with an increased risk of poor functional outcomes, might be related to stroke recurrence and combined vascular events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhang
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Disease, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, China, 100070.,NHC Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Central Asia High Incidence Diseases (First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Shihezi University) /Department of Pathology and Key Laboratory for Xinjiang Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, China, 832002
| | - Xia Meng
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Disease, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, China, 100070.,Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China, 100070.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China, 100070.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Disease, Beijing, China, 100070
| | - Yuesong Pan
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Disease, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, China, 100070.,Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China, 100070.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China, 100070.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Disease, Beijing, China, 100070
| | - Yilong Wang
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Disease, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, China, 100070.,Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China, 100070.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China, 100070.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Disease, Beijing, China, 100070
| | - Xingquan Zhao
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Disease, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, China, 100070.,Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China, 100070.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China, 100070.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Disease, Beijing, China, 100070
| | - Liping Liu
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Disease, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, China, 100070.,Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China, 100070.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China, 100070.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Disease, Beijing, China, 100070
| | - Jiejie Li
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Disease, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, China, 100070.,Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China, 100070.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China, 100070.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Disease, Beijing, China, 100070
| | - Hongyi Yan
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Disease, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, China, 100070
| | - Xiangrong Liu
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Disease, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, China, 100070.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Disease, Beijing, China, 100070
| | - Hui Zhang
- Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China, 832000
| | - Lijuan Pang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Central Asia High Incidence Diseases (First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Shihezi University) /Department of Pathology and Key Laboratory for Xinjiang Endemic and Ethnic Diseases, Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, China, 832002.,Department of Pathology, Central People's Hospital of Zhanjiang and Zhanjiang Central Hospital, Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China, 524033
| | - Yongjun Wang
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Disease, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4th Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, China, 100070.,Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China, 100070.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China, 100070.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Disease, Beijing, China, 100070
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4
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Crilly S, Parry-Jones A, Wang X, Selley JN, Cook J, Tapia VS, Anderson CS, Allan SM, Kasher PR. Zebrafish drug screening identifies candidate therapies for neuroprotection after spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage. Dis Model Mech 2022; 15:274873. [PMID: 35098999 PMCID: PMC8990924 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.049227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the global health burden, treatment of spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) is largely supportive and translation of specific medical therapies has not been successful. Zebrafish larvae offer a unique platform for drug screening to rapidly identify neuroprotective compounds following ICH. We applied the Spectrum Library compounds to zebrafish larvae acutely after ICH to screen for decreased brain cell death and identified 150 successful drugs. Candidates were then evaluated for possible indications with other cardiovascular diseases. Six compounds were identified including two angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE-I). Ramipril and quinapril were further assessed to confirm a significant 55% reduction in brain cell death. Proteomic analysis revealed potential mechanisms of neuroprotection. Using the INTERACT2 clinical trial dataset, we demonstrate a significant reduction in the adjusted odds of an unfavourable shift in the modified Rankin Scale at 90 days for patients receiving an ACE-I after ICH (vs. no ACE-I; odds ratio 0.80; 95% confidence interval 0.68-0.95; P=0.009). The zebrafish larval model of spontaneous ICH can be used as a reliable drug screening platform, and has identified therapeutics which may offer neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siobhan Crilly
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester; Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.,Geoffrey Jefferson Brain Research Centre, The Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Northern Care Alliance & University of Manchester, UK
| | - Adrian Parry-Jones
- Geoffrey Jefferson Brain Research Centre, The Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Northern Care Alliance & University of Manchester, UK.,Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester; Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.,Manchester Centre for Clinical Neurosciences, Salford Royal, NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre; Stott Lane, Salford, M6 8HD, UK
| | - Xia Wang
- The George Institute for Global Health; Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Julian N Selley
- The Biological Mass Spectrometry Core Research Facility, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - James Cook
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester; Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.,Geoffrey Jefferson Brain Research Centre, The Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Northern Care Alliance & University of Manchester, UK
| | - Victor S Tapia
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester; Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.,Geoffrey Jefferson Brain Research Centre, The Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Northern Care Alliance & University of Manchester, UK
| | - Craig S Anderson
- The George Institute for Global Health; Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Stuart M Allan
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester; Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.,Geoffrey Jefferson Brain Research Centre, The Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Northern Care Alliance & University of Manchester, UK
| | - Paul R Kasher
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester; Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.,Geoffrey Jefferson Brain Research Centre, The Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Northern Care Alliance & University of Manchester, UK
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5
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Yang X, Wang P, Yan S, Wang G. Study on potential differentially expressed genes in stroke by bioinformatics analysis. Neurol Sci 2021; 43:1155-1166. [PMID: 34313877 PMCID: PMC8789718 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-021-05470-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is a sudden cerebrovascular circulatory disorder with high morbidity, disability, mortality, and recurrence rate, but its pathogenesis and key genes are still unclear. In this study, bioinformatics was used to deeply analyze the pathogenesis of stroke and related key genes, so as to study the potential pathogenesis of stroke and provide guidance for clinical treatment. Gene Expression profiles of GSE58294 and GSE16561 were obtained from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified between IS and normal control group. The different expression genes (DEGs) between IS and normal control group were screened with the GEO2R online tool. The Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses of the DEGs were performed. Using the Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery (DAVID) and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), the function and pathway enrichment analysis of DEGS were performed. Then, a protein–protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed via the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes (STRING) database. Cytoscape with CytoHubba were used to identify the hub genes. Finally, NetworkAnalyst was used to construct the targeted microRNAs (miRNAs) of the hub genes. A total of 85 DEGs were screened out in this study, including 65 upward genes and 20 downward genes. In addition, 3 KEGG pathways, cytokine − cytokine receptor interaction, hematopoietic cell lineage, B cell receptor signaling pathway, were significantly enriched using a database for labeling, visualization, and synthetic discovery. In combination with the results of the PPI network and CytoHubba, 10 hub genes including CEACAM8, CD19, MMP9, ARG1, CKAP4, CCR7, MGAM, CD79A, CD79B, and CLEC4D were selected. Combined with DEG-miRNAs visualization, 5 miRNAs, including hsa-mir-146a-5p, hsa-mir-7-5p, hsa-mir-335-5p, and hsa-mir-27a- 3p, were predicted as possibly the key miRNAs. Our findings will contribute to identification of potential biomarkers and novel strategies for the treatment of ischemic stroke, and provide a new strategy for clinical therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xitong Yang
- Genetic Testing Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Dali University, Dali, 671000, Yunnan, China
| | - Pengyu Wang
- Genetic Testing Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Dali University, Dali, 671000, Yunnan, China
| | - Shanquan Yan
- Genetic Testing Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Dali University, Dali, 671000, Yunnan, China
| | - Guangming Wang
- Genetic Testing Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Dali University, Dali, 671000, Yunnan, China.
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6
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Wang W, Zhang H, Hou C, Liu Q, Yang S, Zhang Z, Yang W, Yang X. Internal modulation of proteolysis in vascular extracellular matrix remodeling: role of ADAM metallopeptidase with thrombospondin type 1 motif 5 in the development of intracranial aneurysm rupture. Aging (Albany NY) 2021; 13:12800-12816. [PMID: 33934089 PMCID: PMC8148490 DOI: 10.18632/aging.202948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Intracranial aneurysms (IAs) are common cerebrovascular diseases that carry a high mortality rate, and the mechanisms that contribute to IA formation and rupture have not been elucidated. ADAMTS-5 (ADAM Metallopeptidase with Thrombospondin Type 1 Motif 5) is a secreted proteinase involved in matrix degradation and ECM (extracellular matrix) remodeling processes, and we hypothesized that the dysregulation of ADAMTS-5 could play a role in the pathophysiology of IA. Immunofluorescence revealed that the ADAMTS-5 levels were decreased in human and murine IA samples. The administration of recombinant protein ADAMTS-5 significantly reduced the incidence of aneurysm rupture in the experimental model of IA. IA artery tissue was collected and utilized for histology, immunostaining, and specific gene expression analysis. Additionally, the IA arteries in ADAMTS-5-administered mice showed reduced elastic fiber destruction, proteoglycan accumulation, macrophage infiltration, inflammatory response, and apoptosis. To further verify the role of ADAMTS-5 in cerebral vessels, a specific ADAMTS-5 inhibitor was used on another model animal, zebrafish, and intracranial hemorrhage was observed in zebrafish embryos. In conclusion, our findings indicate that ADAMTS-5 is downregulated in human IA, and compensatory ADAMTS-5 administration inhibits IA development and rupture with potentially important implications for treating this cerebrovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weihan Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Hao Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Changkai Hou
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Quanlei Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Shuyuan Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhen Zhang
- Department of Neuro-Oncology and Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Weidong Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Xinyu Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education and Tianjin City, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
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7
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Antifungal drug miconazole ameliorated memory deficits in a mouse model of LPS-induced memory loss through targeting iNOS. Cell Death Dis 2020; 11:623. [PMID: 32796824 PMCID: PMC7429861 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-2619-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is closely related to neuroinflammation, and the increase in inflammatory cytokine generation and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in the brain of a patient with AD is well known. Excessive cytokines can stimulate iNOS in microglia and astroglia and overproduce nitric oxide, which can be toxic to neurons. The disease–gene–drug network analysis based on the GWAS/OMIM/DEG records showed that miconazole (MCZ) affected AD through interactions with NOS. Inhibiting iNOS can reduce neuroinflammation, thus preventing AD progression. To investigate the prophylactic role of antifungal agent in the AD development, a lipopolysaccharide-induced memory disorder mouse model was used, and cognitive function was assessed by Morris water maze test and passive avoidance test. MCZ treatment significantly attenuated cognitive impairment, suppressed iNOS and cyclooxygenase-2 expression, and activation of astrocyte and microglial BV2 cells, as well as reduced cytokine levels in the brains and lipopolysaccharide-treated astrocytes and microglia BV2 cells. In further mechanism studies, Pull-down assay and iNOS luciferase activity data showed that MCZ binds to iNOS and inhibited transcriptional activity. Our results suggest that MCZ is useful for ameliorating the neuroinflammation-mediated AD progression by blocking iNOS expression.
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8
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Xu Z, Zuo Z, Dong D, Liu J, Tang Y, Gu Y, Liu H. Downregulated lncRNA UCA1 accelerates proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells by epigenetic regulation of MMP9. Exp Ther Med 2020; 19:3589-3594. [PMID: 32346422 PMCID: PMC7185078 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2020.8639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Function of long non-coding RNA urothelial carcinoma antigen 1 (lncRNA UCA1) in regulating the proliferative and migratory abilities of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) by mediating matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) level were elucidated. After treatment with different concentrations of ox-LDL for different time points, lncRNA UCA1 level in VSMCs was determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Subcellular distribution of UCA1 was analyzed. Proliferative and migratory abilities of VSMCs transfected with pcDNA-UCA1 were assessed. Protein level of MMP9 in HA-VSMCs treated with different concentrations of ox-LDL for different time points was also determined. The potential interaction between UCA1 and enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) was identified by RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) assay. Recruitment ability of EZH2 to MMP9 promoter region influenced by UCA1 was determined by Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. Finally, the potential function of MMP9 in UCA1-mediated cellular behavior of VSMCs was explored. UCA1 was time-dependently and dose-dependently upregulated in VSMCs by ox-LDL treatment. Proliferative and migratory abilities of VSMCs were enhanced by treatment of 100 mg/l ox-LDL for 48 h, which were further reduced after transfection of pcDNA-UCA1. Subcellular distribution analysis showed that UCA1 was mainly distributed in the nucleus. Protein level of MMP9 was gradually elevated with the treatment of increased concentrations of ox-LDL in VSMCs. Its level was downregulated by transfection of pcDNA-UCA1 in VSMCs. The interaction between UCA1 and EZH2 was confirmed by RIP assay. Transfection of pcDNA-UCA1 stimulated the binding of EZH2 on MMP9 promoter region. Finally, overexpression of MMP9 reversed the decreased proliferative and migratory abilities in ox-LDL-treated VSMCs overexpressing UCA1. Downregulated UCA1 accelerates VSMCs to proliferate and migrate through negatively regulating MMP9 level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhigang Xu
- Department of Geriatrics Chinese Medicine Hospital Affiliated to Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan 646000, P.R. China
| | - Zhengqin Zuo
- Ultrasonography Laboratory, Chinese Medicine Hospital Affiliated to Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan 646000, P.R. China
| | - Dingjun Dong
- Department of Cardiology, Xiangyang Central Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei University of Arts and Science, Xiangyang, Hubei 441021, P.R. China
| | - Juan Liu
- Department of Cardiology, Xiangyang Central Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei University of Arts and Science, Xiangyang, Hubei 441021, P.R. China
| | - Yongqian Tang
- Department of Cardiology, Xiangyang Central Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei University of Arts and Science, Xiangyang, Hubei 441021, P.R. China
| | - Yuanyun Gu
- Department of Geriatrics Chinese Medicine Hospital Affiliated to Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan 646000, P.R. China
| | - Hai Liu
- Department of Cardiology, Xiangyang Central Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei University of Arts and Science, Xiangyang, Hubei 441021, P.R. China
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9
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Low Serum Uric Acid Levels Promote Hypertensive Intracerebral Hemorrhage by Disrupting the Smooth Muscle Cell-Elastin Contractile Unit and Upregulating the Erk1/2-MMP Axis. Transl Stroke Res 2020; 11:1077-1094. [PMID: 32323149 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-020-00791-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a catastrophic stroke with high mortality, and the mechanism underlying ICH is largely unknown. Previous studies have shown that high serum uric acid (SUA) levels are an independent risk factor for hypertension, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and ischemic stroke. However, our metabolomics data showed that SUA levels were lower in recurrent intracerebral hemorrhage (R-ICH) patients than in ICH patients, indicating that lower SUA might contribute to ICH. In this study, we confirmed the association between low SUA levels and the risk for recurrence of ICH and for cardiac-cerebral vascular mortality in hypertensive patients. To determine the mechanism by which low SUA effects ICH pathogenesis, we developed the first low SUA mouse model and conducted transcriptome profiling of the cerebrovasculature of ICH mice. When combining these assessments with pathological morphology, we found that low SUA levels led to ICH in mice with angiotensin II (Ang II)-induced hypertension and aggravated the pathological progression of ICH. In vitro, our results showed that p-Erk1/2-MMP axis were involved in the low UA-induce degradation of elastin, and that physiological concentrations of UA and p-Erk1/2-specific inhibitor exerted a protective role. This is the first report describing to the disruption of the smooth muscle cell (SMC)-elastin contractile units in ICH. Most importantly, we revealed that the upregulation of the p-Erk1/2-MMP axis, which promotes the degradation of elastin, plays a vital role in mediating low SUA levels to exacerbate cerebrovascular rupture during the ICH process.
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10
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Regulation of Oligodendrocyte Functions: Targeting Lipid Metabolism and Extracellular Matrix for Myelin Repair. J Clin Med 2020; 9:jcm9020470. [PMID: 32046349 PMCID: PMC7073561 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9020470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelin is an essential structure that protects axons, provides metabolic support to neurons and allows fast nerve transmission. Several neurological diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, are characterized by myelin damage, which is responsible of severe functional impairment. Myelin repair requires the timely recruitment of adult oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) at the lesion sites, their differentiation and maturation into myelinating oligodendrocytes. As a consequence, OPCs undergo profound changes in their morphology, functions, and interactions with other cells and extracellular environment, thus requiring the reorganization of both their lipid metabolism and their membrane composition, which is substantially different compared to other plasma membranes. Despite the growing knowledge in oligodendroglia biology and in the mechanisms involved in OPC-mediated regeneration, the identification of strategies to promote remyelination still remains a challenge. Here, we describe how altered lipid metabolism in oligodendrocytes influences the pathogenesis of demyelination, and we show that several FDA-approved drugs with a previously unknown remyelination potential do act on cholesterol and lipid biosynthetic pathways. Since the interplay between myelin lipids and axons is strictly coordinated by the extracellular matrix (ECM), we also discuss the role of different ECM components, and report the last findings on new ECM-modifiers able to foster endogenous remyelination.
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11
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High Serum Tissue Inhibitor of Matrix Metalloproteinase-1 Levels and Mortality in Patients with Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage. World Neurosurg 2020; 134:e476-e480. [DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2019.10.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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12
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Zhu XY, Xia B, Wu YY, Yang H, Li CQ, Li P. Fenobucarb induces heart failure and cerebral hemorrhage in zebrafish. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2019; 209:34-41. [PMID: 30685545 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2018.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 12/27/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The potential risk and toxic mechanisms of fenobucarb (2-sec-butylphenyl methylcarbamate, BPMC) to animals and humans have not been fully elucidated. In this study, zebrafish embryos were exposed to various concentrations of BPMC from 48 hpf (hour post fertilization, hpf) to 72 hpf. We found that BPMC induced severe heart failure with bradycardia, reduced heart contractions, cardiac output and blood flow dynamics;and myocardial apoptosis. BPMC also induced cerebral hemorrhages and blood erythrocyte reduction in a dose-dependent manner. Also observed were increased ROS production and capase 9 and 3/7 activation. The mRNA levels of the ATPase-related gene (atp2a1l), calcium channel-related gene (cacna1ab), sodium channel-related gene (scn5Lab), potassium channel-related gene (kcnq1), the regulatory gene (tnnc1a) for cardiac troponin C, and several apoptosis-related genes were significantly downregulated in zebrafish following BPMC exposure. These results suggest that exposure to BPMC is a possible risk factor to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Yu Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 210009, PR China; Hunter Biotechnology, Inc, F1A, Building 5, No. 88 Jiangling Road, Binjiang Zone, Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province 310051, PR China
| | - Bo Xia
- Hunter Biotechnology, Inc, F1A, Building 5, No. 88 Jiangling Road, Binjiang Zone, Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province 310051, PR China
| | - Yu-Ying Wu
- Hunter Biotechnology, Inc, F1A, Building 5, No. 88 Jiangling Road, Binjiang Zone, Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province 310051, PR China
| | - Hua Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 210009, PR China
| | - Chun-Qi Li
- Hunter Biotechnology, Inc, F1A, Building 5, No. 88 Jiangling Road, Binjiang Zone, Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province 310051, PR China.
| | - Ping Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 210009, PR China.
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13
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Patton EE, Tobin DM. Spotlight on zebrafish: the next wave of translational research. Dis Model Mech 2019; 12:12/3/dmm039370. [PMID: 30858282 PMCID: PMC6451428 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.039370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Five years after the launch of the Disease Models & Mechanisms (DMM) Special Issue on zebrafish as a disease model, the field has progressed significantly. Zebrafish have been used to precisely model human genetic variants, to unpick the mechanisms of metabolic and other diseases, to study infection, inflammation and cancer, and to develop and test new therapeutic approaches. In this Editorial, we highlight recent research published in DMM that uses zebrafish to develop new experimental tools and to provide new insight into disease mechanism and therapy. The broad spectrum of subjects and approaches covered in these articles underscores the versatility of zebrafish in translational research. Further, it highlights the zebrafish community's ethos of creativity and collaboration in translating basic biological research into clinically relevant advances affecting how we understand and treat human disease. Summary: Zebrafish are a highly versatile and relevant organism for human disease modelling. This Editorial highlights the recent zebrafish research published in DMM.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Elizabeth Patton
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road South, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, UK
| | - David M Tobin
- Departments of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, and Immunology, Box 3020, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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14
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Crilly S, Njegic A, Laurie SE, Fotiou E, Hudson G, Barrington J, Webb K, Young HL, Badrock AP, Hurlstone A, Rivers-Auty J, Parry-Jones AR, Allan SM, Kasher PR. Using zebrafish larval models to study brain injury, locomotor and neuroinflammatory outcomes following intracerebral haemorrhage. F1000Res 2018; 7:1617. [PMID: 30473780 PMCID: PMC6234746 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.16473.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating condition with limited treatment options, and current understanding of pathophysiology is incomplete. Spontaneous cerebral bleeding is a characteristic of the human condition that has proven difficult to recapitulate in existing pre-clinical rodent models. Zebrafish larvae are frequently used as vertebrate disease models and are associated with several advantages, including high fecundity, optical translucency and non-protected status prior to 5 days post-fertilisation. Furthermore, other groups have shown that zebrafish larvae can exhibit spontaneous ICH. The aim of this study was to investigate whether such models can be utilised to study the pathological consequences of bleeding in the brain, in the context of pre-clinical ICH research. Here, we compared existing genetic (bubblehead) and chemically inducible (atorvastatin) zebrafish larval models of spontaneous ICH and studied the subsequent disease processes. Through live, non-invasive imaging of transgenic fluorescent reporter lines and behavioural assessment we quantified brain injury, locomotor function and neuroinflammation following ICH. We show that ICH in both zebrafish larval models is comparable in timing, frequency and location. ICH results in increased brain cell death and a persistent locomotor deficit. Additionally, in haemorrhaged larvae we observed a significant increase in macrophage recruitment to the site of injury. Live
in vivo imaging allowed us to track active macrophage-based phagocytosis of dying brain cells 24 hours after haemorrhage. Morphological analyses and quantification indicated that an increase in overall macrophage activation occurs in the haemorrhaged brain. Our study shows that in zebrafish larvae, bleeding in the brain induces quantifiable phenotypic outcomes that mimic key features of human ICH. We hope that this methodology will enable the pre-clinical ICH community to adopt the zebrafish larval model as an alternative to rodents, supporting future high throughput drug screening and as a complementary approach to elucidating crucial mechanisms associated with ICH pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siobhan Crilly
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Alexandra Njegic
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Sarah E Laurie
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Elisavet Fotiou
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Georgina Hudson
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Jack Barrington
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Kirsty Webb
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Helen L Young
- Division of Cancer Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Andrew P Badrock
- Division of Evolution and Genomic Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Adam Hurlstone
- Division of Cancer Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Jack Rivers-Auty
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Adrian R Parry-Jones
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Stuart M Allan
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Paul R Kasher
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
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