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Sobrido-Cameán D, Oswald MCW, Bailey DMD, Mukherjee A, Landgraf M. Activity-regulated growth of motoneurons at the neuromuscular junction is mediated by NADPH oxidases. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 16:1106593. [PMID: 36713781 PMCID: PMC9880070 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.1106593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurons respond to changes in the levels of activity they experience in a variety of ways, including structural changes at pre- and postsynaptic terminals. An essential plasticity signal required for such activity-regulated structural adjustments are reactive oxygen species (ROS). To identify sources of activity-regulated ROS required for structural plasticity in vivo we used the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction as a highly tractable experimental model system. For adjustments of presynaptic motor terminals, we found a requirement for both NADPH oxidases, Nox and dual oxidase (Duox), that are encoded in the Drosophila genome. This contrasts with the postsynaptic dendrites from which Nox is excluded. NADPH oxidases generate ROS to the extracellular space. Here, we show that two aquaporins, Bib and Drip, are necessary ROS conduits in the presynaptic motoneuron for activity regulated, NADPH oxidase dependent changes in presynaptic motoneuron terminal growth. Our data further suggest that different aspects of neuronal activity-regulated structural changes might be regulated by different ROS sources: changes in bouton number require both NADPH oxidases, while activity-regulated changes in the number of active zones might be modulated by other sources of ROS. Overall, our results show NADPH oxidases as important enzymes for mediating activity-regulated plasticity adjustments in neurons.
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2
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Sánchez-Castillo C, Cuartero MI, Fernández-Rodrigo A, Briz V, López-García S, Jiménez-Sánchez R, López JA, Graupera M, Esteban JA. Functional specialization of different PI3K isoforms for the control of neuronal architecture, synaptic plasticity, and cognition. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabq8109. [PMID: 36417513 PMCID: PMC9683729 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abq8109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Neuronal connectivity and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity are fundamental properties that support brain function and cognitive performance. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) intracellular signaling controls multiple mechanisms mediating neuronal growth, synaptic structure, and plasticity. However, it is still unclear how these pleiotropic functions are integrated at molecular and cellular levels. To address this issue, we used neuron-specific virally delivered Cre expression to delete either p110α or p110β (the two major catalytic isoforms of type I PI3K) from the hippocampus of adult mice. We found that dendritic and postsynaptic structures are almost exclusively supported by p110α activity, whereas p110β controls neurotransmitter release and metabotropic glutamate receptor-dependent long-term depression at the presynaptic terminal. In addition to these separate functions, p110α and p110β jointly contribute to N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor-dependent postsynaptic long-term potentiation. This molecular and functional specialization is reflected in different proteomes controlled by each isoform and in distinct behavioral alterations for learning/memory and sociability in mice lacking p110α or p110β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Sánchez-Castillo
- Department of Molecular Neuropathology, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - María I. Cuartero
- Department of Molecular Neuropathology, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Alba Fernández-Rodrigo
- Department of Molecular Neuropathology, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Víctor Briz
- Department of Molecular Neuropathology, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Sergio López-García
- Department of Molecular Neuropathology, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Raquel Jiménez-Sánchez
- Department of Molecular Neuropathology, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan A. López
- Proteomics Unit, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (CIBERCV), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mariona Graupera
- Endothelial Pathobiology and Microenviroment Group, Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), 08916 Badalona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - José A. Esteban
- Department of Molecular Neuropathology, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
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3
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Dennis AG, Almaguer-Mederos LE, Raúl RA, Roberto RL, Luis VP, Dany CA, Yanetza GZ, Yaimeé VM, Annelié ED, Arnoy PA, Reydenis TV. Redox Imbalance Associates with Clinical Worsening in Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 2. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021; 2021:9875639. [PMID: 33688396 PMCID: PMC7920744 DOI: 10.1155/2021/9875639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2) is a neurodegenerative disease presenting with redox imbalance. However, the nature and implications of redox imbalance in SCA2 physiopathology have not been fully understood. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study is to assess the redox imbalance and its association with disease severity in SCA2 mutation carriers. METHODS A case-control study was conducted involving molecularly confirmed SCA2 patients, presymptomatic individuals, and healthy controls. Several antioxidant parameters were assessed, including serum thiol concentration and the superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione S-transferase enzymatic activities. Also, several prooxidant parameters were evaluated, including thiobarbituric acid-reactive species and protein carbonyl concentrations. Damage, protective, and OXY scores were computed. Clinical correlates were established. RESULTS Significant differences were found between comparison groups for redox markers, including protein carbonyl concentration (F = 3.30; p = 0.041), glutathione S-transferase activity (F = 4.88; p = 0.009), and damage (F = 3.20; p = 0.045), protection (F = 12.75; p < 0.001), and OXY (F = 7.29; p = 0.001) scores. Protein carbonyl concentration was positively correlated with CAG repeat length (r = 0.27; p = 0.022), while both protein carbonyl concentration (r = -0.27; p = 0.018) and OXY score (r = -0.25; p = 0.013) were inversely correlated to the disease duration. Increasing levels of antioxidants and decreasing levels of prooxidant parameters were associated with clinical worsening. CONCLUSIONS There is a disruption of redox balance in SCA2 mutation carriers which depends on the disease stage. Besides, redox changes associate with markers of disease severity, suggesting a link between disruption of redox balance and SCA2 physiopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Almaguer-Gotay Dennis
- Center for the Investigation and Rehabilitation of Hereditary Ataxias (CIRAH), Holguín, Cuba
- University of Medical Sciences of Holguín, Cuba
| | - Luis E. Almaguer-Mederos
- Center for the Investigation and Rehabilitation of Hereditary Ataxias (CIRAH), Holguín, Cuba
- University of Medical Sciences of Holguín, Cuba
| | - Rodríguez-Aguilera Raúl
- Center for the Investigation and Rehabilitation of Hereditary Ataxias (CIRAH), Holguín, Cuba
- University of Medical Sciences of Holguín, Cuba
| | | | - Velázquez-Pérez Luis
- Center for the Investigation and Rehabilitation of Hereditary Ataxias (CIRAH), Holguín, Cuba
- Cuban Academy of Sciences, Cuba
| | - Cuello-Almarales Dany
- Center for the Investigation and Rehabilitation of Hereditary Ataxias (CIRAH), Holguín, Cuba
- University of Medical Sciences of Holguín, Cuba
| | - González-Zaldívar Yanetza
- Center for the Investigation and Rehabilitation of Hereditary Ataxias (CIRAH), Holguín, Cuba
- University of Medical Sciences of Holguín, Cuba
| | - Vázquez-Mojena Yaimeé
- Center for the Investigation and Rehabilitation of Hereditary Ataxias (CIRAH), Holguín, Cuba
| | | | - Peña-Acosta Arnoy
- Center for the Investigation and Rehabilitation of Hereditary Ataxias (CIRAH), Holguín, Cuba
| | - Torres-Vega Reydenis
- Center for the Investigation and Rehabilitation of Hereditary Ataxias (CIRAH), Holguín, Cuba
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4
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Hood VL, Paterson C, Law AJ. PI3Kinase-p110δ Overexpression Impairs Dendritic Morphogenesis and Increases Dendritic Spine Density. Front Mol Neurosci 2020; 13:29. [PMID: 32180704 PMCID: PMC7059765 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2020.00029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Activity and expression of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) catalytic isoform, PIK3CD/p110δ, is increased in schizophrenia, autism, and intellectual delay and pro-cognitive preclinical efficacy of p110δ-inhibition has been demonstrated in pharmacological, genetic, and developmental rodent models of psychiatric disorders. Although PI3K signaling has been implicated in the development and function of neurons and glia; isoform-specific roles of the individual PI3Ks are less clear and the biological effects of increased p110δ on neuronal development are unknown. Since the pathobiological direction of p110δ changes in neurodevelopmental disorders are increased expression and activity, we hypothesized that overexpression of p110δ would impact measures of neuronal development and maturation relevant to connectivity and synaptic transmission. p110δ overexpression in primary rat hippocampal cultures significantly reduced dendritic morphogenesis and arborization and increased immature and mature dendritic spine densities, without impacting cell viability, soma size, or axon length. Together, our novel findings demonstrate the importance of homeostatic regulation of the p110δ isoform for normative neuronal development and highlight a potential pathophysiological mechanism of association to disorders of neurodevelopment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica L Hood
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Clare Paterson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Amanda J Law
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States.,Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
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5
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Patrón LA, Nagatomo K, Eves DT, Imad M, Young K, Torvund M, Guo X, Rogers GC, Zinsmaier KE. Cul4 ubiquitin ligase cofactor DCAF12 promotes neurotransmitter release and homeostatic plasticity. J Cell Biol 2019; 218:993-1010. [PMID: 30670470 PMCID: PMC6400570 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201805099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Patrón et al. show that presynaptic Drosophila DCAF12 is required for neurotransmitter release and homeostatic synaptic plasticity at neuromuscular junctions. Postsynaptic nuclear DCAF12 controls the expression of glutamate receptor IIA subunits in cooperation with Cullin4 ubiquitin ligase. We genetically characterized the synaptic role of the Drosophila homologue of human DCAF12, a putative cofactor of Cullin4 (Cul4) ubiquitin ligase complexes. Deletion of Drosophila DCAF12 impairs larval locomotion and arrests development. At larval neuromuscular junctions (NMJs), DCAF12 is expressed presynaptically in synaptic boutons, axons, and nuclei of motor neurons. Postsynaptically, DCAF12 is expressed in muscle nuclei and facilitates Cul4-dependent ubiquitination. Genetic experiments identified several mechanistically independent functions of DCAF12 at larval NMJs. First, presynaptic DCAF12 promotes evoked neurotransmitter release. Second, postsynaptic DCAF12 negatively controls the synaptic levels of the glutamate receptor subunits GluRIIA, GluRIIC, and GluRIID. The down-regulation of synaptic GluRIIA subunits by nuclear DCAF12 requires Cul4. Third, presynaptic DCAF12 is required for the expression of synaptic homeostatic potentiation. We suggest that DCAF12 and Cul4 are critical for normal synaptic function and plasticity at larval NMJs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian A Patrón
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ.,Graduate Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | - Kei Nagatomo
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | | | - Mays Imad
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | - Kimberly Young
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | - Meaghan Torvund
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ.,Graduate Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | - Xiufang Guo
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | - Gregory C Rogers
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | - Konrad E Zinsmaier
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ .,Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
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6
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Sivanantharajah L, Mudher A, Shepherd D. An evaluation of Drosophila as a model system for studying tauopathies such as Alzheimer's disease. J Neurosci Methods 2019; 319:77-88. [PMID: 30633936 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2019.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2018] [Revised: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Work spanning almost two decades using the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, to study tau-mediated neurodegeneration has provided valuable and novel insights into the causes and mechanisms of tau-mediated toxicity and dysfunction in tauopathies such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The fly has proven to be an excellent model for human diseases because of its cost efficiency, and the availability of powerful genetic tools for use in a comparatively less-complicated, but evolutionarily conserved, in vivo system. In this review, we provide a critical evaluation of the insights provided by fly models, highlighting both the advantages and limitations of the system. The fly has contributed to a greater understanding of the causes of tau abnormalities, the role of these abnormalities in mediating toxicity and/or dysfunction, and the nature of causative species mediating tau-toxicity. However, it is not possible to perfectly model all aspects of human degenerative diseases. What sets the fly apart from other animal models is its genetic tractability, which makes it highly amenable to overcoming experimental limitations. The explosion of genetic technology since the first fly disease models were established has translated into fly lines that allow for greater temporal control in restricting tau expression to single neuron types, and lines that can label and monitor the function of subcellular structures and components; thus, fly models offer an unprecedented view of the neurodegenerative process. Emerging genetic technology means that the fly provides an ever-evolving experimental platform for studying disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amritpal Mudher
- Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - David Shepherd
- School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, UK
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7
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Dason JS, Allen AM, Vasquez OE, Sokolowski MB. Distinct functions of a cGMP-dependent protein kinase in nerve terminal growth and synaptic vesicle cycling. J Cell Sci 2019; 132:jcs.227165. [DOI: 10.1242/jcs.227165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Sustained neurotransmission requires the tight coupling of synaptic vesicle (SV) exocytosis and endocytosis. The mechanisms underlying this coupling are poorly understood. We tested the hypothesis that a cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG), encoded by the foraging (for) gene in Drosophila melanogaster, is critical for this process using a for null mutant, genomic rescues, and tissue specific rescues. We uncoupled FOR's exocytic and endocytic functions in neurotransmission using a temperature-sensitive shibire mutant in conjunction with fluorescein-assisted light inactivation of FOR. We discovered a dual role for presynaptic FOR, where FOR inhibits SV exocytosis during low frequency stimulation by negatively regulating presynaptic Ca2+ levels and maintains neurotransmission during high frequency stimulation by facilitating SV endocytosis. Additionally, glial FOR negatively regulated nerve terminal growth through TGF-β signaling and this developmental effect was independent from FOR's effects on neurotransmission. Overall, FOR plays a critical role in coupling SV exocytosis and endocytosis, thereby balancing these two components to maintain sustained neurotransmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey S. Dason
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3B2, Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Aaron M. Allen
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3B2, Canada
- Present Address: Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, University of Oxford, OX1 3SR Oxford, UK
| | - Oscar E. Vasquez
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Marla B. Sokolowski
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3B2, Canada
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3B2, Canada
- Child and Brain Development Program, Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR), Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1M1, Canada
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8
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Oswald MC, Brooks PS, Zwart MF, Mukherjee A, West RJ, Giachello CN, Morarach K, Baines RA, Sweeney ST, Landgraf M. Reactive oxygen species regulate activity-dependent neuronal plasticity in Drosophila. eLife 2018; 7:39393. [PMID: 30540251 PMCID: PMC6307858 DOI: 10.7554/elife.39393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been extensively studied as damaging agents associated with ageing and neurodegenerative conditions. Their role in the nervous system under non-pathological conditions has remained poorly understood. Working with the Drosophila larval locomotor network, we show that in neurons ROS act as obligate signals required for neuronal activity-dependent structural plasticity, of both pre- and postsynaptic terminals. ROS signaling is also necessary for maintaining evoked synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction, and for activity-regulated homeostatic adjustment of motor network output, as measured by larval crawling behavior. We identified the highly conserved Parkinson’s disease-linked protein DJ-1β as a redox sensor in neurons where it regulates structural plasticity, in part via modulation of the PTEN-PI3Kinase pathway. This study provides a new conceptual framework of neuronal ROS as second messengers required for neuronal plasticity and for network tuning, whose dysregulation in the ageing brain and under neurodegenerative conditions may contribute to synaptic dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Cw Oswald
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Paul S Brooks
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Amrita Mukherjee
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Ryan Jh West
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom.,Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Carlo Ng Giachello
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Khomgrit Morarach
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Richard A Baines
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Sean T Sweeney
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Matthias Landgraf
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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9
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Mansilla A, Jordán-Álvarez S, Santana E, Jarabo P, Casas-Tintó S, Ferrús A. Molecular mechanisms that change synapse number. J Neurogenet 2018; 32:155-170. [DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2018.1506781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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10
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Oswald MCW, Garnham N, Sweeney ST, Landgraf M. Regulation of neuronal development and function by ROS. FEBS Lett 2018; 592:679-691. [PMID: 29323696 PMCID: PMC5888200 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.12972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have long been studied as destructive agents in the context of nervous system ageing, disease and degeneration. Their roles as signalling molecules under normal physiological conditions is less well understood. Recent studies have provided ample evidence of ROS-regulating neuronal development and function, from the establishment of neuronal polarity to growth cone pathfinding; from the regulation of connectivity and synaptic transmission to the tuning of neuronal networks. Appreciation of the varied processes that are subject to regulation by ROS might help us understand how changes in ROS metabolism and buffering could progressively impact on neuronal networks with age and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nathan Garnham
- Department of BiologyUniversity of YorkHeslington YorkUK
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11
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Jordán-Álvarez S, Santana E, Casas-Tintó S, Acebes Á, Ferrús A. The equilibrium between antagonistic signaling pathways determines the number of synapses in Drosophila. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0184238. [PMID: 28892511 PMCID: PMC5593197 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The number of synapses is a major determinant of behavior and many neural diseases exhibit deviations in that number. However, how signaling pathways control this number is still poorly understood. Using the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction, we show here a PI3K-dependent pathway for synaptogenesis which is functionally connected with other previously known elements including the Wit receptor, its ligand Gbb, and the MAPkinases cascade. Based on epistasis assays, we determined the functional hierarchy within the pathway. Wit seems to trigger signaling through PI3K, and Ras85D also contributes to the initiation of synaptogenesis. However, contrary to other signaling pathways, PI3K does not require Ras85D binding in the context of synaptogenesis. In addition to the MAPK cascade, Bsk/JNK undergoes regulation by Puc and Ras85D which results in a narrow range of activity of this kinase to determine normalcy of synapse number. The transcriptional readout of the synaptogenesis pathway involves the Fos/Jun complex and the repressor Cic. In addition, we identified an antagonistic pathway that uses the transcription factors Mad and Medea and the microRNA bantam to down-regulate key elements of the pro-synaptogenesis pathway. Like its counterpart, the anti-synaptogenesis signaling uses small GTPases and MAPKs including Ras64B, Ras-like-a, p38a and Licorne. Bantam downregulates the pro-synaptogenesis factors PI3K, Hiw, Ras85D and Bsk, but not AKT. AKT, however, can suppress Mad which, in conjunction with the reported suppression of Mad by Hiw, closes the mutual regulation between both pathways. Thus, the number of synapses seems to result from the balanced output from these two pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ángel Acebes
- Institute Cajal C.S.I.C., Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail: (AF); (AA)
| | - Alberto Ferrús
- Institute Cajal C.S.I.C., Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail: (AF); (AA)
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12
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Mansilla A, Chaves-Sanjuan A, Campillo NE, Semelidou O, Martínez-González L, Infantes L, González-Rubio JM, Gil C, Conde S, Skoulakis EMC, Ferrús A, Martínez A, Sánchez-Barrena MJ. Interference of the complex between NCS-1 and Ric8a with phenothiazines regulates synaptic function and is an approach for fragile X syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E999-E1008. [PMID: 28119500 PMCID: PMC5307446 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1611089114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The protein complex formed by the Ca2+ sensor neuronal calcium sensor 1 (NCS-1) and the guanine exchange factor protein Ric8a coregulates synapse number and probability of neurotransmitter release, emerging as a potential therapeutic target for diseases affecting synapses, such as fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most common heritable autism disorder. Using crystallographic data and the virtual screening of a chemical library, we identified a set of heterocyclic small molecules as potential inhibitors of the NCS-1/Ric8a interaction. The aminophenothiazine FD44 interferes with NCS-1/Ric8a binding, and it restores normal synapse number and associative learning in a Drosophila FXS model. The synaptic effects elicited by FD44 feeding are consistent with the genetic manipulation of NCS-1. The crystal structure of NCS-1 bound to FD44 and the structure-function studies performed with structurally close analogs explain the FD44 specificity and the mechanism of inhibition, in which the small molecule stabilizes a mobile C-terminal helix inside a hydrophobic crevice of NCS-1 to impede Ric8a interaction. Our study shows the drugability of the NCS-1/Ric8a interface and uncovers a suitable region in NCS-1 for development of additional drugs of potential use on FXS and related synaptic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Mansilla
- Departamento de Neurobiología del Desarrollo, Instituto Cajal, Spanish National Research Council, 28002 Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Chaves-Sanjuan
- Departamento de Cristalografía y Biología Estructural, Instituto de Química Física Rocasolano, Spanish National Research Council, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Nuria E Campillo
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Spanish National Research Council, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ourania Semelidou
- Division of Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Research Centre Alexander Fleming, 16672 Vari, Greece
| | | | - Lourdes Infantes
- Departamento de Cristalografía y Biología Estructural, Instituto de Química Física Rocasolano, Spanish National Research Council, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Juana María González-Rubio
- Departamento de Cristalografía y Biología Estructural, Instituto de Química Física Rocasolano, Spanish National Research Council, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Gil
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Spanish National Research Council, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Santiago Conde
- Instituto de Química Médica, Spanish National Research Council, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Efthimios M C Skoulakis
- Division of Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Research Centre Alexander Fleming, 16672 Vari, Greece
| | - Alberto Ferrús
- Departamento de Neurobiología del Desarrollo, Instituto Cajal, Spanish National Research Council, 28002 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Martínez
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Spanish National Research Council, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - María José Sánchez-Barrena
- Departamento de Cristalografía y Biología Estructural, Instituto de Química Física Rocasolano, Spanish National Research Council, 28006 Madrid, Spain;
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13
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mRNA expression characteristics are different in irreversibly atrophic intrinsic muscles of the forepaw compared with reversibly atrophic biceps in a rat model of obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP). J Muscle Res Cell Motil 2016; 37:17-25. [PMID: 26902607 DOI: 10.1007/s10974-016-9442-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
In obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP), irreversible muscle atrophy occurs much faster in intrinsic muscles of the hand than in the biceps. To elucidate the mechanisms involved, mRNA expression profiles of denervated intrinsic muscles of the forepaw (IMF) and denervated biceps were determined by microarray using the rat model of OBPP where atrophy of IMF is irreversible while atrophy of biceps is reversible. Relative to contralateral control, 446 dysregulated mRNAs were detected in denervated IMF and mapped to 51 KEGG pathways, and 830 dysregulated mRNAs were detected in denervated biceps and mapped to 52 KEGG pathways. In denervated IMF, 10 of the pathways were related to muscle regulation; six with down-regulated and one with up-regulated mRNAs. The remaining three pathways had both up- and down-regulated mRNAs. In denervated biceps, 13 of the pathways were related to muscle regulation, six with up-regulated and seven with down-regulated mRNAs. Five of the pathways with up-regulated mRNAs were related to regrowth and differentiation of muscle cells. Among the 23 pathways with dysregulated mRNAs, 13 were involved in regulation of neuromuscular junctions. Our results demonstrated that mRNAs expression characteristics in irreversibly atrophic denervated IMF were different from those in reversibly atrophic denervated biceps; dysregulated mRNAs in IMF were associated with inactive pathways of muscle regulation, and in biceps they were associated with active pathways of regrowth and differentiation. Lack of self-repair potential in IMF may be a major reason why atrophy of IMF becomes irreversible much faster than atrophy of biceps after denervation.
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Current techniques for high-resolution mapping of behavioral circuits in Drosophila. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2015; 201:895-909. [DOI: 10.1007/s00359-015-1010-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2014] [Revised: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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15
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Cuesto G, Jordán-Álvarez S, Enriquez-Barreto L, Ferrús A, Morales M, Acebes Á. GSK3β inhibition promotes synaptogenesis in Drosophila and mammalian neurons. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118475. [PMID: 25764078 PMCID: PMC4357437 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The PI3K-dependent activation of AKT results in the inhibition of GSK3β in most signaling pathways. These kinases regulate multiple neuronal processes including the control of synapse number as shown for Drosophila and rodents. Alzheimer disease's patients exhibit high levels of circulating GSK3β and, consequently, pharmacological strategies based on GSK3β antagonists have been designed. The approach, however, has yielded inconclusive results so far. Here, we carried out a comparative study in Drosophila and rats addressing the role of GSK3β in synaptogenesis. In flies, the genetic inhibition of the shaggy-encoded GSK3β increases the number of synapses, while its upregulation leads to synapse loss. Likewise, in three weeks cultured rat hippocampal neurons, the pharmacological inhibition of GSK3β increases synapse density and Synapsin expression. However, experiments on younger cultures (12 days) yielded an opposite effect, a reduction of synapse density. This unexpected finding seems to unveil an age- and dosage-dependent differential response of mammalian neurons to the stimulation/inhibition of GSK3β, a feature that must be considered in the context of human adult neurogenesis and pharmacological treatments for Alzheimer's disease based on GSK3β antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Germán Cuesto
- Structural Synaptic Plasticity Laboratory, Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de La Rioja, Logroño, La Rioja, Spain
| | - Sheila Jordán-Álvarez
- Department of Cellular, Molecular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lilian Enriquez-Barreto
- Structural Synaptic Plasticity Laboratory, Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de La Rioja, Logroño, La Rioja, Spain
| | - Alberto Ferrús
- Department of Cellular, Molecular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Morales
- Structural Synaptic Plasticity Laboratory, Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de La Rioja, Logroño, La Rioja, Spain
- * E-mail: (AA); (MM)
| | - Ángel Acebes
- Department of Cellular, Molecular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail: (AA); (MM)
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16
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Ericson VR, Spilker KA, Tugizova MS, Shen K. MTM-6, a phosphoinositide phosphatase, is required to promote synapse formation in Caenorhabditis elegans. PLoS One 2014; 9:e114501. [PMID: 25479419 PMCID: PMC4257696 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0114501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Forming the proper number of synapses is crucial for normal neuronal development. We found that loss of function of the phosphoinositide phosphatase mtm-6 results in a reduction in the number of synaptic puncta. The reduction in synapses is partially the result of MTM-6 regulation of the secretion of the Wnt ligand EGL-20 from cells in the tail and partially the result of neuronal action. MTM-6 shows relative specificity for EGL-20 over the other Wnt ligands. We suggest that the ability of MTM-6 to regulate EGL-20 secretion is a function of its expression pattern. We conclude that regulation of secretion of different Wnt ligands can use different components. Additionally, we present a novel neuronal function for MTM-6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivian R. Ericson
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Kerri A. Spilker
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Madina S. Tugizova
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Kang Shen
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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17
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Balakrishnan SS, Basu U, Raghu P. Phosphoinositide signalling in Drosophila. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2014; 1851:770-84. [PMID: 25449646 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2014] [Revised: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Phosphoinositides (PtdInsPs) are lipids that mediate a range of conserved cellular processes in eukaryotes. These include the transduction of ligand binding to cell surface receptors, vesicular transport and cytoskeletal function. The nature and functions of PtdInsPs were initially elucidated through biochemical experiments in mammalian cells. However, over the years, genetic and cell biological analysis in a range of model organisms including S. cerevisiae, D. melanogaster and C. elegans have contributed to an understanding of the involvement of PtdInsPs in these cellular events. The fruit fly Drosophila is an excellent genetic model for the analysis of cell and developmental biology as well as physiological processes, particularly analysis of the complex relationship between the cell types of a metazoan in mediating animal physiology. PtdInsP signalling pathways are underpinned by enzymes that synthesise and degrade these molecules and also by proteins that bind to these lipids in cells. In this review we provide an overview of the current understanding of PtdInsP signalling in Drosophila. We provide a comparative genomic analysis of the PtdInsP signalling toolkit between Drosophila and mammalian systems. We also review some areas of cell and developmental biology where analysis in Drosophila might provide insights into the role of this lipid-signalling pathway in metazoan biology. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Phosphoinositides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sruthi S Balakrishnan
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, TIFR-GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bangalore 560065, India
| | - Urbashi Basu
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, TIFR-GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bangalore 560065, India
| | - Padinjat Raghu
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, TIFR-GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bangalore 560065, India.
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Kim MJ, O’Connor MB. Anterograde Activin signaling regulates postsynaptic membrane potential and GluRIIA/B abundance at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107443. [PMID: 25255438 PMCID: PMC4177838 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 08/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the TGF-β superfamily play numerous roles in nervous system development and function. In Drosophila, retrograde BMP signaling at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is required presynaptically for proper synapse growth and neurotransmitter release. In this study, we analyzed whether the Activin branch of the TGF-β superfamily also contributes to NMJ development and function. We find that elimination of the Activin/TGF-β type I receptor babo, or its downstream signal transducer smox, does not affect presynaptic NMJ growth or evoked excitatory junctional potentials (EJPs), but instead results in a number of postsynaptic defects including depolarized membrane potential, small size and frequency of miniature excitatory junction potentials (mEJPs), and decreased synaptic densities of the glutamate receptors GluRIIA and B. The majority of the defective smox synaptic phenotypes were rescued by muscle-specific expression of a smox transgene. Furthermore, a mutation in actβ, an Activin-like ligand that is strongly expressed in motor neurons, phenocopies babo and smox loss-of-function alleles. Our results demonstrate that anterograde Activin/TGF-β signaling at the Drosophila NMJ is crucial for achieving normal abundance and localization of several important postsynaptic signaling molecules and for regulating postsynaptic membrane physiology. Together with the well-established presynaptic role of the retrograde BMP signaling, our findings indicate that the two branches of the TGF-β superfamily are differentially deployed on each side of the Drosophila NMJ synapse to regulate distinct aspects of its development and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myung-Jun Kim
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Michael B. O’Connor
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Romero-Pozuelo J, Dason JS, Mansilla A, Baños-Mateos S, Sardina JL, Chaves-Sanjuán A, Jurado-Gómez J, Santana E, Atwood HL, Hernández-Hernández Á, Sánchez-Barrena MJ, Ferrús A. The guanine-exchange factor Ric8a binds to the Ca²⁺ sensor NCS-1 to regulate synapse number and neurotransmitter release. J Cell Sci 2014; 127:4246-59. [PMID: 25074811 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.152603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The conserved Ca(2+)-binding protein Frequenin (homolog of the mammalian NCS-1, neural calcium sensor) is involved in pathologies that result from abnormal synapse number and probability of neurotransmitter release per synapse. Both synaptic features are likely to be co-regulated but the intervening mechanisms remain poorly understood. We show here that Drosophila Ric8a (a homolog of mammalian synembryn, which is also known as Ric8a), a receptor-independent activator of G protein complexes, binds to Frq2 but not to the virtually identical homolog Frq1. Based on crystallographic data on Frq2 and site-directed mutagenesis on Frq1, the differential amino acids R94 and T138 account for this specificity. Human NCS-1 and Ric8a reproduce the binding and maintain the structural requirements at these key positions. Drosophila Ric8a and Gαs regulate synapse number and neurotransmitter release, and both are functionally linked to Frq2. Frq2 negatively regulates Ric8a to control synapse number. However, the regulation of neurotransmitter release by Ric8a is independent of Frq2 binding. Thus, the antagonistic regulation of these two synaptic properties shares a common pathway, Frq2-Ric8a-Gαs, which diverges downstream. These mechanisms expose the Frq2-Ric8a interacting surface as a potential pharmacological target for NCS-1-related diseases and provide key data towards the corresponding drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Romero-Pozuelo
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Institute Cajal, CSIC, Avenida Dr. Arce 37, Madrid 28002, Spain
| | - Jeffrey S Dason
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Alicia Mansilla
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Institute Cajal, CSIC, Avenida Dr. Arce 37, Madrid 28002, Spain
| | - Soledad Baños-Mateos
- Department of Crystallography and Structural Biology, Institute of Physical-Chemistry 'Rocasolano', CSIC, Serrano 119, Madrid 28006, Spain
| | - José L Sardina
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca 37007, Spain
| | - Antonio Chaves-Sanjuán
- Department of Crystallography and Structural Biology, Institute of Physical-Chemistry 'Rocasolano', CSIC, Serrano 119, Madrid 28006, Spain
| | - Jaime Jurado-Gómez
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Institute Cajal, CSIC, Avenida Dr. Arce 37, Madrid 28002, Spain
| | - Elena Santana
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Institute Cajal, CSIC, Avenida Dr. Arce 37, Madrid 28002, Spain
| | - Harold L Atwood
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Ángel Hernández-Hernández
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Institute Cajal, CSIC, Avenida Dr. Arce 37, Madrid 28002, Spain Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca 37007, Spain Institute for Biomedical Research (IBSAL), Salamanca 37007, Spain
| | - María-José Sánchez-Barrena
- Department of Crystallography and Structural Biology, Institute of Physical-Chemistry 'Rocasolano', CSIC, Serrano 119, Madrid 28006, Spain
| | - Alberto Ferrús
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Institute Cajal, CSIC, Avenida Dr. Arce 37, Madrid 28002, Spain
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Ruiz S, Ferreiro MJ, Menhert KI, Casanova G, Olivera A, Cantera R. Rhythmic changes in synapse numbers in Drosophila melanogaster motor terminals. PLoS One 2013; 8:e67161. [PMID: 23840613 PMCID: PMC3695982 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that the morphology of the neuromuscular junction of the flight motor neuron MN5 in Drosophila melanogaster undergoes daily rhythmical changes, with smaller synaptic boutons during the night, when the fly is resting, than during the day, when the fly is active. With electron microscopy and laser confocal microscopy, we searched for a rhythmic change in synapse numbers in this neuron, both under light:darkness (LD) cycles and constant darkness (DD). We expected the number of synapses to increase during the morning, when the fly has an intense phase of locomotion activity under LD and DD. Surprisingly, only our DD data were consistent with this hypothesis. In LD, we found more synapses at midnight than at midday. We propose that under LD conditions, there is a daily rhythm of formation of new synapses in the dark phase, when the fly is resting, and disassembly over the light phase, when the fly is active. Several parameters appeared to be light dependent, since they were affected differently under LD or DD. The great majority of boutons containing synapses had only one and very few had either two or more, with a 70∶25∶5 ratio (one, two and three or more synapses) in LD and 75∶20∶5 in DD. Given the maintenance of this proportion even when both bouton and synapse numbers changed with time, we suggest that there is a homeostatic mechanism regulating synapse distribution among MN5 boutons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Ruiz
- Departamento de Biología del Neurodesarrollo, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente
- Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Maria Jose Ferreiro
- Departamento de Biología del Neurodesarrollo, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente
- Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | | | - Gabriela Casanova
- Unidad de Microscopía Electrónica de Transmisión, Facultad de Ciencias, UdelaR, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Alvaro Olivera
- Unidad de Microscopía Electrónica de Transmisión, Facultad de Ciencias, UdelaR, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Rafael Cantera
- Departamento de Biología del Neurodesarrollo, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente
- Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
- Zoology Department, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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21
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Jordán-Álvarez S, Fouquet W, Sigrist SJ, Acebes A. Presynaptic PI3K activity triggers the formation of glutamate receptors at neuromuscular terminals of Drosophila. Development 2012. [DOI: 10.1242/dev.089953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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