Different mechanisms of cell polarisation in vegetative and shmooing growth in fission yeast

A systematic screen for morphological abnormalities during fission yeast sexual reproduction identifies a mechanism of actin aster formation for cell fusion

In non-motile fungi, sexual reproduction relies on strong morphogenetic changes in response to pheromone signaling. We report here on a systematic screen for morphological abnormalities of the mating process in fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. We derived a homothallic (self-fertile) collection of viable deletions, which, upon visual screening, revealed a plethora of phenotypes affecting all stages of the mating process, including cell polarization, cell fusion and sporulation. Cell fusion relies on the formation of the fusion focus, an aster-like F-actin structure that is marked by strong local accumulation of the myosin V Myo52, which concentrates secretion at the fusion site. A secondary screen for fusion-defective mutants identified the myosin V Myo51-associated coiled-coil proteins Rng8 and Rng9 as critical for the coalescence of the fusion focus. Indeed, rng8Δ and rng9Δ mutant cells exhibit multiple stable dots at the cell-cell contact site, instead of the single focus observed in wildtype. Rng8 and Rng9 accumulate on the fusion focus, dependent on Myo51 and tropomyosin Cdc8. A tropomyosin mutant allele, which compromises Rng8/9 localization but not actin binding, similarly leads to multiple stable dots instead of a single focus. By contrast, myo51 deletion does not strongly affect fusion focus coalescence. We propose that focusing of the actin filaments in the fusion aster primarily relies on Rng8/9-dependent cross-linking of tropomyosin-actin filaments.

Cell polarity: wanderful exploration in yeast sex

Chemical gradients are used by cells to provide positional information. Two new studies reveal that polarity proteins are highly dynamic in yeast cells responding to a pheromone gradient and suggest that this behavior is important for robust directional growth.

Cdc42 explores the cell periphery for mate selection in fission yeast

How cells polarize in response to external cues is a fundamental biological problem. For mating, yeast cells orient growth toward the source of a pheromone gradient produced by cells of the opposite mating type. Polarized growth depends on the small GTPase Cdc42, a central eukaryotic polarity regulator that controls signaling, cytoskeleton polarization, and vesicle trafficking. However, the mechanisms of polarity establishment and mate selection in complex cellular environments are poorly understood. Here we show that, in fission yeast, low-level pheromone signaling promotes a novel polarization state, where active Cdc42, its GEF Scd1, and scaffold Scd2 form colocalizing dynamic zones that sample the periphery of the cell. Two direct Cdc42 effectors--actin cables marked by myosin V Myo52 and the exocyst complex labeled by Sec6 and Sec8--also dynamically colocalize with active Cdc42. However, these cells do not grow due to a block in the exocytosis of cell wall synthases Bgs1 and Bgs4. High-level pheromone stabilizes active Cdc42 zones and promotes cell wall synthase exocytosis and polarized growth. However, in the absence of prior low-level pheromone signaling, exploration fails, and cells polarize growth at cell poles by default. Consequently, these cells show altered partner choice, mating preferentially with sister rather than nonsister cells. Thus, Cdc42 exploration serves to orient growth for partner selection. This process may also promote genetic diversification.

The yeast ubiquitin-like domain protein Mdy2 is required for microtubule-directed nuclear migration and localizes to cytoplasmic granules in response to heat stress

MDY2 encodes a ubiquitin-like (UBL)-domain protein necessary for efficient mating in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Unlike most UBL proteins, Mdy2 is apparently not subject to C-terminal processing and is localized predominantly in the nucleus. Deletion of MDY2 is associated with a five- to seven-fold reduction in mating efficiency, mainly due to defects in nuclear migration and karyogamy at the prezygotic stage. Here, we looked for two potential interacting partners of Mdy2, investigated the function of Mdy2 in nuclear movement, determined the increased heat sensitivity defects of mdy2Δ mutants, and inspected localization of Mdy2. Coprecipitation studies show that Mdy2 associates with α-tubulin and with the microtubule (MT)-associated dynactin subunit p150(Glued)/Nip100. nip100Δ mutants exhibit no defects in nuclear migration or in MT length or orientation during shmooing growth. Deletion of MDY2 display small nuclear migration phenotype during vegetative growth and seems to exacerbate the defects in mitotic nuclear migration seen in the nip100Δ strain. Deletion of MDY2 increased heat sensitivity of the cells and these strains accumulate mitotic nuclear migration defects and shortened MTs under these conditions. GFP-Mdy2 proteins which are localized predominantly in the nucleus at permissive temperature are localized to cytoplasmic foci during heat shock. Colocalization studies revealed that heat stress-induced enrichment of Mdy2 in cytoplasmic foci merged mainly with stress granules marker Pab1. During glucose deprivation a minority of Mdy2 foci overlapped with P-bodies marker Dcp2, while most Mdy2 foci and Pab1 foci overlap. Accordingly, we propose that Mdy2 plays a critical role in the MT-dependent processes of karyogamy and stress response.

Reorganization of the growth pattern of Schizosaccharomyces pombe in invasive filament formation

The organization and control of polarized growth through the cell cycle of Schizosaccharomyces pombe, a single-celled eukaryote, have been studied extensively. We have investigated the changes in these processes when S. pombe differentiates to form multicellular invasive mycelia and have found striking alterations to the behavior of some of the key regulatory proteins. Cells at the tips of invading filaments are considerably more elongated than cells growing singly and grow at one pole only. The filament tip follows a strict direction of growth through multiple cell cycles. A group of proteins involved in the growth process and actin regulation, comprising Spo20, Bgs4, activated Cdc42, and Crn1, are all concentrated at the growing tip, unlike their distribution at both ends of single cells. In contrast, several proteins implicated in microtubule-dependent organization of growth, including Tea1, Tea4, Mod5, and Pom1, all show the opposite effect and are relatively depleted at the growing end and enriched at the nongrowing end, although Tea1 appears to continue to be delivered to both ends. A third group acting at different stages of the cell cycle, including Bud6, Rga4, and Mid1, localize similarly in filaments and single cells, while Nif1 shows a reciprocal localization to Pom1.

Methods for expressing and analyzing GFP-tubulin and GFP-microtubule-associated proteins

Important advances in our understanding of the organization and dynamics of the cytoskeleton have been made by direct observations of fluorescently tagged cytoskeletal proteins in living cells. In early experiments, the cytoskeletal protein of interest was purified, covalently modified with a fluorescent dye, and microinjected into living cells. In the mid-1990s, a powerful new technology arose: Researchers developed methods for expressing chimeric proteins consisting of the gene of interest fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP). This approach has become a standard method for characterizing protein localization and dynamics. More recently, a profusion of "XFP" (spectral variants of GFP) has been developed, allowing researchers straightforwardly to perform experiments ranging from simultaneous co-observation of protein dynamics to fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), and subresolution techniques such as stimulated emission-depletion microscopy (STED) and photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM). In this article, the methods used to express and analyze GFP- and/or XFP-tagged tubulin and microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) are discussed. Although some details may be system-specific, the methods and considerations outlined here can be adapted to a wide variety of proteins and organisms.

Asp1, a conserved 1/3 inositol polyphosphate kinase, regulates the dimorphic switch in Schizosaccharomyces pombe

The ability to undergo dramatic morphological changes in response to extrinsic cues is conserved in fungi. We have used the model yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe to determine which intracellular signal regulates the dimorphic switch from the single-cell yeast form to the filamentous invasive growth form. The S. pombe Asp1 protein, a member of the conserved Vip1 1/3 inositol polyphosphate kinase family, is a key regulator of the morphological switch via the cAMP protein kinase A (PKA) pathway. Lack of a functional Asp1 kinase domain abolishes invasive growth which is monopolar, while an increase in Asp1-generated inositol pyrophosphates (PP) increases the cellular response. Remarkably, the Asp1 kinase activity encoded by the N-terminal part of the protein is regulated negatively by the C-terminal domain of Asp1, which has homology to acid histidine phosphatases. Thus, the fine tuning of the cellular response to environmental cues is modulated by the same protein. As the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Asp1 ortholog is also required for the dimorphic switch in this yeast, we propose that Vip1 family members have a general role in regulating fungal dimorphism.

Kelch repeat protein Clakel2p and calcium signaling control appressorium development in Colletotrichum lagenarium

Kelch repeat proteins are important mediators of fundamental cellular functions and are found in diverse organisms. However, the roles of these proteins in filamentous fungi have not been characterized. We isolated a kelch repeat-encoding gene of Colletotrichum lagenarium ClaKEL2, a Schizosaccharomyces pombe tea1 homologue. Analysis of the clakel2 mutant indicated that ClaKEL2 was required for the establishment of cellular polarity essential for proper morphogenesis of appressoria and that there is a plant signal-specific bypass pathway for appressorium development which circumvents ClaKEL2 function. Clakel2p was localized in the polarized region of growing hyphae and germ tubes, and the localization was disturbed by a microtubule assembly blocker. The clakel2 mutants formed abnormal appressoria, and those appressoria were defective in penetration hypha development into cellulose membranes, an artificial model substrate for fungal infection. Surprisingly, the clakel2 mutants formed normal appressoria on the host plant and retained penetration ability. Normal appressorium formation on the artificial substrate by the clakel2 mutants was restored when cells were incubated in the presence of CaCl(2) or exudates from cucumber cotyledon. Furthermore, calcium channel modulators inhibited restoration of normal appressorium formation. These results suggest that there could be a bypass pathway that transduces a plant-derived signal for appressorium development independent of ClaKEL2 and that a calcium signal is involved in this transduction pathway.

Fission yeast Num1p is a cortical factor anchoring dynein and is essential for the horse-tail nuclear movement during meiotic prophase

During meiotic prophase in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the nucleus oscillates between the two ends of a cell. This oscillatory nuclear movement is important to promote accurate pairing of homologous chromosomes and requires cytoplasmic dynein. Dynein accumulates at the points where microtubule plus ends contact the cell cortex and generate a force to drive nuclear oscillation. However, it remains poorly understood how dynein associates with the cell cortex. Here we show that S. pombe Num1p functions as a cortical-anchoring factor for dynein. Num1p is expressed in a meiosis-specific manner and localized to the cell cortex through its C-terminal PH domain. The num1 deletion mutant shows microtubule dynamics comparable to that in the wild type. However, it lacks cortical accumulation of dynein and is defective in the nuclear oscillation as is the case for the dynein mutant. We also show that Num1p can recruit dynein independently of the CLIP-170 homolog Tip1p.

The EB1 homolog Mal3 stimulates the ATPase of the kinesin Tea2 by recruiting it to the microtubule

Tea2 is a kinesin family member from Schizosaccharomyces pombe that is targeted to microtubule tips and cell ends in a process that depends on Mal3. Constructs of Tea2 containing the motor domain only or the motor domain plus the N-terminal extension are monomeric, whereas a construct including the first predicted coiled coil region is dimeric. These constructs have a low basal rate of ATP hydrolysis of <0.1 s(-1), but microtubules stimulate the rate of ATP hydrolysis to a maximum of approximately 15 s(-1). Hydrodynamic analysis of Mal3 indicates that it is dimeric. Mal3 is known to associate with Tea2, and analysis with the above Tea2 constructs indicates that the principal site of interaction of Mal3 with Tea2 is the N-terminal extension, although a weaker interaction is also observed with the motor domain alone. In parallel to the binding studies, Mal3 strongly stimulates the ATPase of constructs containing the N-terminal extension by decreasing the K0.5(MT) for stimulation by microtubules but only weakly stimulates motor domains without the N-terminal extension. Mal3 reduces the K0.5(MT) values without affecting the k(cat) value at saturating microtubule level. Binding of Mal3 to microtubules induces an increase in the binding of Tea2 and a reciprocal stimulation of Mal3 binding by Tea2 is also observed. Tea2 is a plus end directed motor that drives sliding of axonemes when adsorbed to a glass surface. The sliding rate is initially unaffected by Mal3, but axonemes stop moving on continued exposure to Mal3.

The p150-Glued Ssm4p regulates microtubular dynamics and nuclear movement in fission yeast

During vegetative growth of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, microtubules nucleate from multiple microtubule organising centres (MTOCs) close to the nucleus, polymerising until they reach the end of the cell and then shrinking back to the cell centre. In response to mating pheromone, S. pombe undergoes a morphological switch from a vegetative to a shmooing growth pattern. The switch in growth mode is paralleled by a switch in microtubular dynamics. Microtubules nucleate mostly from a single MTOC and pull on the ends of the cell to move the nucleus back and forth. This movement continues after cellular and nuclear fusion in the zygote and is important to ensure correct chromosome pairing, recombination and segregation during meiosis. Here we show that Ssm4p, a p150-Glued protein, is induced specifically in response to pheromone and is required for this nuclear movement. Ssm4p is associated with the cytoplasmic dynein complex and together with the CLIP-170 homologue Tip1p regulates dynein heavy chain localisation. We also show that Ssm4p collaborates with Tip1p in establishing the shmooing microtubular array.

Regulation of a formin complex by the microtubule plus end protein tea1p

The plus ends of microtubules have been speculated to regulate the actin cytoskeleton for the proper positioning of sites of cell polarization and cytokinesis. In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, interphase microtubules and the kelch repeat protein tea1p regulate polarized cell growth. Here, we show that tea1p is directly deposited at cell tips by microtubule plus ends. Tea1p associates in large “polarisome” complexes with bud6p and for3p, a formin that assembles actin cables. Tea1p also interacts in a separate complex with the CLIP-170 protein tip1p, a microtubule plus end–binding protein that anchors tea1p to the microtubule plus end. Localization experiments suggest that tea1p and bud6p regulate formin distribution and actin cable assembly. Although single mutants still polarize, for3Δbud6Δtea1Δ triple-mutant cells lack polarity, indicating that these proteins contribute overlapping functions in cell polarization. Thus, these experiments begin to elucidate how microtubules contribute to the proper spatial regulation of actin assembly and polarized cell growth.

Rsp1p, a J Domain Protein Required for Disassembly and Assembly of Microtubule Organizing Centers during the Fission Yeast Cell Cycle

Regulation of microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) orchestrates the reorganization of the microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton. In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, an equatorial MTOC (eMTOC) at the cell division site disassembles after cytokinesis, and multiple interphase MTOCs (iMTOCs) appear on the nucleus. Here, we show that, upon eMTOC disassembly, small satellites carrying MTOC components such as the gamma-tubulin complex travel in both directions along interphase MTs. We identify rsp1p, an MTOC protein required for eMTOC disassembly. In rsp1 loss-of-function mutants, the eMTOC persists and organizes an abnormal microtubule aster, while iMTOCs and satellites are greatly reduced. Conversely, rsp1p overexpression inhibits eMTOC formation. Rsp1p is a J domain protein that interacts with an hsp70. Thus, our findings suggest a model in which rsp1p is part of a chaperone-based mechanism that disassembles the eMTOC into satellites, contributing to the dynamic redistribution of MTOC components for organization of interphase microtubules.

Cell Polarity: A New Mod(e) of Anchoring

Microtubules play a central role in the establishment of cell polarity by directing the transport of polarity determinants to their site of action. Recent work has revealed a novel membrane-anchoring mechanism which complements the microtubule transport of the fission yeast polarity determinant tea1p to ensure its retention at the cell tip.

Targeted movement of cell end factors in fission yeast

Kinesins are microtubule-based motor proteins that transport cargo to specific locations within the cell. However, the mechanisms by which cargoes are directed to specific cellular locations have remained elusive. Here, we investigated the in vivo movement of the Schizosaccharomyces pombe kinesin Tea2 to establish how it is targeted to microtubule tips and cell ends. Tea2 is loaded onto microtubules in the middle of the cell, in close proximity to the nucleus, and then travels using its intrinsic motor activity primarily at the tips of polymerizing microtubules. The microtubule-associated protein Mal3, an EB1 homologue, is required for loading and/or processivity of Tea2 and this function can be substituted by human EB1. In addition, the cell-end marker Tea1 is required to anchor Tea2 to cell ends. Movement of Tea1 and the CLIP170 homologue Tip1 to cell ends is abolished in Tea2 rigor (ATPase) mutants. We propose that microtubule-based transport from the vicinity of the nucleus to cell ends can be precisely regulated, with Mal3 required for loading/processivity, Tea2 for movement and Tea1 for cell-end anchoring.

A complete inventory of fungal kinesins in representative filamentous ascomycetes

Complete inventories of kinesins from three pathogenic filamentous ascomycetes, Botryotinia fuckeliana, Cochliobolus heterostrophus, and Gibberella moniliformis, are described. These protein sequences were compared with those of the filamentous saprophyte, Neurospora crassa and the two yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Data mining and phylogenetic analysis of the motor domain yielded a constant set of 10 kinesins in the filamentous fungal species, compared with a smaller set in S. cerevisiae and S. pombe. The filamentous fungal kinesins fell into nine subfamilies when compared with well-characterized kinesins from other eukaryotes. A few putative kinesins (one in B. fuckeliana and two in C. heterostrophus) could not be defined as functional, due to unorthodox organization and lack of experimental data. The broad representation of filamentous fungal kinesins across most of the known subfamilies and the ease of gene manipulation make fungi ideal models for functional and evolutionary investigation of these proteins.

Yeasts make their mark

Budding and fission yeast serve as genetic model organisms for the study of the molecular mechanisms of cell polarity in single cells. Similar to other polarized eukaryotic cells, yeast cells have polarity programmes that regulate where they grow and divide. Here, we describe recent advances in defining the proteins that establish cell polarity and the numerous molecular interactions that may link these factors to the actin cytoskeleton. As many of these components are identified, a comprehensive understanding of complex pathways is beginning to emerge.