Compensatory increases of select proteostasis networks after Hsp70 inhibition in cancer cells

When "loss-of-function" means proteostasis burden: Thinking again about coding DNA variants

Each human genome has approximately 5 million DNA variants. Even for complete loss-of-function variants causing inherited, monogenic diseases, current understanding based on gene-specific molecular function does not adequately predict variability observed between people with identical mutations or fluctuating disease trajectories. We present a parallel paradigm for loss-of-function variants based on broader consequences to the cell when aberrant polypeptide chains of amino acids are translated from mutant RNA to generate mutated proteins. Missense variants that modify primary amino acid sequence, and nonsense/frameshift variants that generate premature termination codons (PTCs), are placed in context alongside emergent themes of chaperone binding, protein quality control capacity, and cellular adaptation to stress. Relatively stable proteostasis burdens are contrasted with rapid changes after induction of gene expression, or stress responses that suppress nonsense mediated decay (NMD) leading to higher PTC transcript levels where mutant proteins can augment cellular stress. For known disease-causal mutations, an adjunctive variant categorization system enhances clinical predictive power and precision therapeutic opportunities. Additionally, with typically more than 100 nonsense and frameshift variants, and ∼10,000 missense variants per human DNA, the paradigm focuses attention on all protein-coding DNA variants, and their potential contributions to multimorbid states beyond classically designated inherited diseases. Experimental testing in clinically relevant systems is encouraged to augment current atlases of protein expression at single-cell resolution, and high-throughput experimental data and deep-learning models that predict which amino acid substitutions generate enhanced degradative burdens. Incorporating additional dimensions such as pan-proteome competition for chaperones, and age-related loss of proteostasis capacity, should further accelerate health impacts.

Trim21 modulates endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation and sensitizes cancer cells to ER stress-induced apoptosis by inhibiting VCP/Npl4/UFD1 assembly

Endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD) serves as a crucial quality and quantity control system that removes misfolded or unassembled proteins from the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) through the cytoplasmic ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), which is critical for cell fate decision. ER stress arises when misfolded proteins accumulated within the ER lumen, potentially leading to cell death via proapoptotic unfolded protein response (UPR). UFD1 in associated with VCP-Npl4, is recognized as a key regulator of protein homeostasis in ERAD. However, the factors that control VCP complex assembly remain unclear. The study elucidates the function of Trim21, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, through its interaction with UFD1, facilitating K27-linkage ubiquitination of UFD1 and inhibiting its incorporation into the VCP complex. This results in the suppression of ERAD substrates degradation and the activation of a proapoptotic unfolded protein response in cancer cells. Additionally, Trim21 over-expression enhances ER stress response and promotes apoptosis upon expose to the ER inducer Tunicamycin. Notably, elevated Trim21 expression correlates with improved overall survival in various tumor types. Overall, the findings highlight the critical role of Trim21 in regulating ERAD progression and cell fate determination in cancer cells through modulation of VCP/Npl4/UFD1 complex assembly.

Hsp70 Negatively Regulates Autophagy via Governing AMPK Activation, and Dual Hsp70-Autophagy Inhibition Induces Synergetic Cell Death in NSCLC Cells

Proteostasis mechanisms, such as proteotoxic-stress response and autophagy, are increasingly recognized for their roles in influencing various cancer hallmarks such as tumorigenesis, drug resistance, and recurrence. However, the precise mechanisms underlying their coordination remain not fully elucidated. The aim of this study is to investigate the molecular interplay between Hsp70 and autophagy in lung adenocarcinoma cells and elucidate its impact on the outcomes of anticancer therapies in vitro. For this purpose, we utilized the human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cell line and genetically modified it by knockdown of Hsp70 or HSF1, and the H1299 cell line with knockdown or overexpression of Hsp70. In addition, several treatments were employed, including treatment with Hsp70 inhibitors (VER-155008 and JG-98), HSF1 activator ML-346, or autophagy modulators (SAR405 and Rapamycin). Using immunoblotting, we found that Hsp70 negatively regulates autophagy by directly influencing AMPK activation, uncovering a novel regulatory mechanism of autophagy by Hsp70. Genetic or chemical Hsp70 overexpression was associated with the suppression of AMPK and autophagy. Conversely, the inhibition of Hsp70, genetically or chemically, resulted in the upregulation of AMPK-mediated autophagy. We further investigated whether Hsp70 suppression-mediated autophagy exhibits pro-survival- or pro-death-inducing effects via MTT test, colony formation, CellTiter-Glo 3D-Spheroid viability assay, and Annexin/PI apoptosis assay. Our results show that combined inhibition of Hsp70 and autophagy, along with cisplatin treatment, synergistically reduces tumor cell metabolic activity, growth, and viability in 2D and 3D tumor cell models. These cytotoxic effects were exerted by substantially potentiating apoptosis, while activating autophagy via rapamycin slightly rescued tumor cells from apoptosis. Therefore, our findings demonstrate that the combined inhibition of Hsp70 and autophagy represents a novel and promising therapeutic approach that may disrupt the capacity of refractory tumor cells to withstand conventional therapies in NSCLC.

Rhabdomyosarcoma: Current Therapy, Challenges, and Future Approaches to Treatment Strategies

Rhabdomyosarcoma is a rare cancer arising in skeletal muscle that typically impacts children and young adults. It is a worldwide challenge in child health as treatment outcomes for metastatic and recurrent disease still pose a major concern for both basic and clinical scientists. The treatment strategies for rhabdomyosarcoma include multi-agent chemotherapies after surgical resection with or without ionization radiotherapy. In this comprehensive review, we first provide a detailed clinical understanding of rhabdomyosarcoma including its classification and subtypes, diagnosis, and treatment strategies. Later, we focus on chemotherapy strategies for this childhood sarcoma and discuss the impact of three mechanisms that are involved in the chemotherapy response including apoptosis, macro-autophagy, and the unfolded protein response. Finally, we discuss in vivo mouse and zebrafish models and in vitro three-dimensional bioengineering models of rhabdomyosarcoma to screen future therapeutic approaches and promote muscle regeneration.

Non-Essential Amino Acid Availability Influences Proteostasis and Breast Cancer Cell Survival During Proteotoxic Stress

Protein homeostasis (proteostasis) regulates tumor growth and proliferation when cells are exposed to proteotoxic stress, such as during treatment with certain chemotherapeutics. Consequently, cancer cells depend to a greater extent on stress signaling, and require the integrated stress response (ISR), amino acid metabolism, and efficient protein folding and degradation pathways to survive. To define how these interconnected pathways are wired when cancer cells are challenged with proteotoxic stress, we investigated how amino acid abundance influences cell survival when Hsp70, a master proteostasis regulator, is inhibited. We previously demonstrated that cancer cells exposed to a specific Hsp70 inhibitor induce the ISR via the action of two sensors, GCN2 and PERK, in stress-resistant and sensitive cells, respectively. In resistant cells, the induction of GCN2 and autophagy supported resistant cell survival, yet the mechanism by which these events were induced remained unclear. We now report that amino acid availability reconfigures the proteostasis network. Amino acid supplementation, and in particular arginine addition, triggered cancer cell death by blocking autophagy. Consistent with the importance of amino acid availability, which when limited activates GCN2, resistant cancer cells succumbed when challenged with a potentiator for another amino acid sensor, mTORC1, in conjunction with Hsp70 inhibition.

IMPLICATIONS

These data position amino acid abundance, GCN2, mTORC1, and autophagy as integrated therapeutic targets whose coordinated modulation regulates the survival of proteotoxic-resistant breast cancer cells.

Cancer chemotherapy and beyond: Current status, drug candidates, associated risks and progress in targeted therapeutics

Cancer is an abnormal state of cells where they undergo uncontrolled proliferation and produce aggressive malignancies that causes millions of deaths every year. With the new understanding of the molecular mechanism(s) of disease progression, our knowledge about the disease is snowballing, leading to the evolution of many new therapeutic regimes and their successive trials. In the past few decades, various combinations of therapies have been proposed and are presently employed in the treatment of diverse cancers. Targeted drug therapy, immunotherapy, and personalized medicines are now largely being employed, which were not common a few years back. The field of cancer discoveries and therapeutics are evolving fast as cancer type-specific biomarkers are progressively being identified and several types of cancers are nowadays undergoing systematic therapies, extending patients' disease-free survival thereafter. Although growing evidence shows that a systematic and targeted approach could be the future of cancer medicine, chemotherapy remains a largely opted therapeutic option despite its known side effects on the patient's physical and psychological health. Chemotherapeutic agents/pharmaceuticals served a great purpose over the past few decades and have remained the frontline choice for advanced-stage malignancies where surgery and/or radiation therapy cannot be prescribed due to specific reasons. The present report succinctly reviews the existing and contemporary advancements in chemotherapy and assesses the status of the enrolled drugs/pharmaceuticals; it also comprehensively discusses the emerging role of specific/targeted therapeutic strategies that are presently being employed to achieve better clinical success/survival rate in cancer patients.

HSP70 Family in Cancer: Signaling Mechanisms and Therapeutic Advances

The 70 kDa heat shock proteins (HSP70s) are a group of highly conserved and inducible heat shock proteins. One of the main functions of HSP70s is to act as molecular chaperones that are involved in a large variety of cellular protein folding and remodeling processes. HSP70s are found to be over-expressed and may serve as prognostic markers in many types of cancers. HSP70s are also involved in most of the molecular processes of cancer hallmarks as well as the growth and survival of cancer cells. In fact, many effects of HSP70s on cancer cells are not only related to their chaperone activities but rather to their roles in regulating cancer cell signaling. Therefore, a number of drugs directly or indirectly targeting HSP70s, and their co-chaperones have been developed aiming to treat cancer. In this review, we summarized HSP70-related cancer signaling pathways and corresponding key proteins regulated by the family of HSP70s. In addition, we also summarized various treatment approaches and progress of anti-tumor therapy based on targeting HSP70 family proteins.

Synthetic Small Molecule Modulators of Hsp70 and Hsp40 Chaperones as Promising Anticancer Agents

A class of chaperones dubbed heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) possesses high relevance in cancer diseases due to its cooperative activity with the well-established anticancer target Hsp90. However, Hsp70 is closely connected with a smaller heat shock protein, Hsp40, forming a formidable Hsp70-Hsp40 axis in various cancers, which serves as a suitable target for anticancer drug design. This review summarizes the current state and the recent developments in the field of (semi-)synthetic small molecule inhibitors directed against Hsp70 and Hsp40. The medicinal chemistry and anticancer potential of pertinent inhibitors are discussed. Since Hsp90 inhibitors have entered clinical trials but have exhibited severe adverse effects and drug resistance formation, potent Hsp70 and Hsp40 inhibitors may play a significant role in overcoming the drawbacks of Hsp90 inhibitors and other approved anticancer drugs.

Inhibitor Combinations Reveal Wiring of the Proteostasis Network in Prostate Cancer Cells

The protein homeostasis (proteostasis) network is composed of multiple pathways that work together to balance protein folding, stability, and turnover. Cancer cells are particularly reliant on this network; however, it is hypothesized that inhibition of one node might lead to compensation. To better understand these connections, we dosed 22Rv1 prostate cancer cells with inhibitors of four proteostasis targets (Hsp70, Hsp90, proteasome, and p97), either alone or in binary combinations, and measured the effects on cell growth. The results reveal a series of additive, synergistic, and antagonistic relationships, including strong synergy between inhibitors of p97 and the proteasome and striking antagonism between inhibitors of Hsp90 and the proteasome. Based on RNA-seq, these relationships are associated, in part, with activation of stress pathways. Together, these results suggest that cocktails of proteostasis inhibitors might be a powerful way of treating some cancers, although antagonism that blunts the efficacy of both molecules is also possible.

Unique integrated stress response sensors regulate cancer cell susceptibility when Hsp70 activity is compromised

Molecular chaperones, such as Hsp70, prevent proteotoxicity and maintain homeostasis. This is perhaps most evident in cancer cells, which overexpress Hsp70 and thrive even when harboring high levels of misfolded proteins. To define the response to proteotoxic challenges, we examined adaptive responses in breast cancer cells in the presence of an Hsp70 inhibitor. We discovered that the cells bin into distinct classes based on inhibitor sensitivity. Strikingly, the most resistant cells have higher autophagy levels, and autophagy was maximally activated only in resistant cells upon Hsp70 inhibition. In turn, resistance to compromised Hsp70 function required the integrated stress response transducer, GCN2, which is commonly associated with amino acid starvation. In contrast, sensitive cells succumbed to Hsp70 inhibition by activating PERK. These data reveal an unexpected route through which breast cancer cells adapt to proteotoxic insults and position GCN2 and autophagy as complementary mechanisms to ensure survival when proteostasis is compromised.

Synthesis and evaluation of bifunctional PTP4A3 phosphatase inhibitors activating the ER stress pathway

We developed JMS-053, a potent inhibitor of the dual specificity phosphatase PTP4A3 that is potentially suitable for cancer therapy. Due to the emerging role of the unfolded protein response (UPR) in cancer pathology, we sought to identify derivatives that combine PTP4A3 inhibition with induction of endoplasmatic reticulum (ER) stress, with the goal to generate more potent anticancer agents. We have now generated bifunctional analogs that link the JMS-053 pharmacophore to an adamantyl moiety and act in concert with the phosphatase inhibitor to induce ER stress and cell death. The most potent compound in this series, 7a, demonstrated a ca. 5-fold increase in cytotoxicity in a breast cancer cell line and strong activation of UPR and ER stress response genes in spite of a ca. 13-fold decrease in PTP4A3 inhibition. These results demonstrate that the combination of phosphatase inhibition with UPR/ER-stress upregulation potentiates efficacy.

Function, Therapeutic Potential, and Inhibition of Hsp70 Chaperones

Hsp70s are among the most highly conserved proteins in all of biology. Through an iterative binding and release of exposed hydrophobic residues on client proteins, Hsp70s can prevent aggregation and promote folding to the native state of their client proteins. The human proteome contains eight canonical Hsp70s. Because Hsp70s are relatively promiscuous they play a role in folding a large proportion of the proteome. Hsp70s are implicated in disease through their ability to regulate protein homeostasis. In recent years, researchers have attempted to develop selective inhibitors of Hsp70 isoforms to better understand the role of individual isoforms in biology and as potential therapeutics. Selective inhibitors have come from rational design, forced localization, and serendipity, but the development of completely selective inhibitors remains elusive. In the present review, we discuss the Hsp70 structure and function, the known Hsp70 client proteins, the role of Hsp70s in disease, and current efforts to discover Hsp70 modulators.

Molecular Chaperones: A Double-Edged Sword in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Aberrant accumulation of misfolded proteins into amyloid deposits is a hallmark in many age-related neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), Huntington’s disease (HD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Pathological inclusions and the associated toxicity appear to spread through the nervous system in a characteristic pattern during the disease. This has been attributed to a prion-like behavior of amyloid-type aggregates, which involves self-replication of the pathological conformation, intercellular transfer, and the subsequent seeding of native forms of the same protein in the neighboring cell. Molecular chaperones play a major role in maintaining cellular proteostasis by assisting the (re)-folding of cellular proteins to ensure their function or by promoting the degradation of terminally misfolded proteins to prevent damage. With increasing age, however, the capacity of this proteostasis network tends to decrease, which enables the manifestation of neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, there has been a plethora of studies investigating how and when chaperones interact with disease-related proteins, which have advanced our understanding of the role of chaperones in protein misfolding diseases. This review article focuses on the steps of prion-like propagation from initial misfolding and self-templated replication to intercellular spreading and discusses the influence that chaperones have on these various steps, highlighting both the positive and adverse consequences chaperone action can have. Understanding how chaperones alleviate and aggravate disease progression is vital for the development of therapeutic strategies to combat these debilitating diseases.

Proteotoxic Stress and Cell Death in Cancer Cells

To maintain proteostasis, cells must integrate information and activities that supervise protein synthesis, protein folding, conformational stability, and also protein degradation. Extrinsic and intrinsic conditions can both impact normal proteostasis, causing the appearance of proteotoxic stress. Initially, proteotoxic stress elicits adaptive responses aimed at restoring proteostasis, allowing cells to survive the stress condition. However, if the proteostasis restoration fails, a permanent and sustained proteotoxic stress can be deleterious, and cell death ensues. Many cancer cells convive with high levels of proteotoxic stress, and this condition could be exploited from a therapeutic perspective. Understanding the cell death pathways engaged by proteotoxic stress is instrumental to better hijack the proliferative fate of cancer cells.

The IRE1 and PERK arms of the unfolded protein response promote survival of rhabdomyosarcoma cells

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), the most common soft-tissue sarcoma, is associated with a low 5-year survival and harsh treatment side effects, underscoring an urgent need for therapy. The unfolded protein response (UPR) is activated in response to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, where three ER stress receptors, IRE1, PERK and ATF6, aim to restore cellular homeostasis. The UPR is pro-tumourigenic in many cancers. In this study, we investigate basal UPR activity in RMS. Basal activation of IRE1 and PERK was observed in RMS cell lines, which was diminished upon addition of the IRE1 RNase inhibitor, MKC8866, or PERK inhibitor, AMGEN44. UPR inhibition caused a reduction in cell viability, cell proliferation and inhibition of long-term colony formation in both subtypes of RMS. Alveolar RMS (ARMS) subtype was highly sensitive to IRE1 inhibition, whereas embryonal RMS (ERMS) subtypes responded more markedly to PERK inhibition. Further investigation revealed a robust activation of senescence upon UPR inhibition. For the first time, the UPR is implicated in RMS biology and phenotype, and inhibition of UPR signalling reduces cell growth, suggesting that the UPR may be a promising target in RMS.

Hsp70 and the Unfolded Protein Response as a Challenging Drug Target and an Inspiration for Probe Molecule Development

The unfolded protein response (UPR) is a cellular stress response mechanism that is critical for cell survival. Pharmacological modulation of the ATPase activity of the chaperone Hsp70 can trigger UPR-mediated cell death, thus removing pathogenic cells in human malignancies, or, alternatively, stimulate survival, thereby preventing apoptosis in neuronal cells and slowing the progress of inflammation, neurodegeneration, and aging. This Viewpoint highlights the complexity of the protein homeostasis network and discusses different approaches for modulating Hsp70 activity, including the use of a chemical reaction development-inspired library of Hsp70 agonists and antagonists.

Combination of Anti-Cancer Drugs with Molecular Chaperone Inhibitors

Most molecular chaperones belonging to heat shock protein (HSP) families are known to protect cancer cells from pathologic, environmental and pharmacological stress factors and thereby can hamper anti-cancer therapies. In this review, we present data on inhibitors of the heat shock response (particularly mediated by the chaperones HSP90, HSP70, and HSP27) either as a single treatment or in combination with currently available anti-cancer therapeutic approaches. An overview of the current literature reveals that the co-administration of chaperone inhibitors and targeting drugs results in proteotoxic stress and violates the tumor cell physiology. An optimal drug combination should simultaneously target cytoprotective mechanisms and trigger the imbalance of the tumor cell physiology.

Hsp70 inhibitors: Implications for the treatment of colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common malignancies in the world. Despite intensive advances in diagnosis and treatment of CRC, it is yet one of the leading cause of cancer related morbidity and mortality. Therefore, there is an urgent medical need for alternative therapeutic approaches to treat CRC. The 70 kDa heat shock proteins (Hsp70s) are a family of evolutionary conserved heat shock proteins, which play an important role in cell homeostasis and survival. They overexpress in various types of malignancy including CRC and are typically accompanied with poor prognosis. Hence, inhibition of Hsp70 may be considered as a striking chemotherapeutic avenue. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the progress made so far to discover compounds, which target the Hsp70 family, with particular emphasis on their efficacy in treatment of CRC. We also briefly explain the induction of Hsp70 as a strategy to prevent CRC.

First person – Sara Sannino

First Person is a series of interviews with the first authors of a selection of papers published in Journal of Cell Science, helping early-career researchers promote themselves alongside their papers. Sara Sannino is the first author on ‘ Compensatory increases of select proteostasis networks after Hsp70 inhibition in cancer cells’, published in Journal of Cell Science. Sara is a postdoctoral fellow in the lab of Jeffrey L. Brodsky at The University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, investigating the role of protein folding and degradation pathways in cancer survival.