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Challita EJ, Rohilla P, Bhamla MS. Fluid Ejections in Nature. Annu Rev Chem Biomol Eng 2024; 15:187-217. [PMID: 38669514 PMCID: PMC11269045 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-100722-113148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
From microscopic fungi to colossal whales, fluid ejections are universal and intricate phenomena in biology, serving vital functions such as animal excretion, venom spraying, prey hunting, spore dispersal, and plant guttation. This review delves into the complex fluid physics of ejections across various scales, exploring both muscle-powered active systems and passive mechanisms driven by gravity or osmosis. It introduces a framework using dimensionless numbers to delineate transitions from dripping to jetting and elucidate the governing forces. Highlighting the understudied area of complex fluid ejections, this review not only rationalizes the biophysics involved but also uncovers potential engineering applications in soft robotics, additive manufacturing, and drug delivery. By bridging biomechanics, the physics of living systems, and fluid dynamics, this review offers valuable insights into the diverse world of fluid ejections and paves the way for future bioinspired research across the spectrum of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elio J Challita
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA;
| | - Pankaj Rohilla
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA;
| | - M Saad Bhamla
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA;
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2
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Maciulewicz TS, Cardwell MD, Brandecker K, Massey DJ, Shirazi FM. Snake eyes: Characterization of topical ocular exposures from rattlesnakes in Arizona. Toxicon 2024; 244:107775. [PMID: 38782188 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Patients occasionally present with reports of ocular exposure to fluids from rattlesnakes, claiming or suspecting the substance to be venom. This study set out to evaluate and characterize reported cases of suspected venom-induced ophthalmia in humans. A retrospective review of rattlesnake exposures reported to the Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center over a 24-year period was conducted for ocular exposures. Recorded information included patient demographics, clinical course, laboratory results, and treatments. Documentation regarding interactions between patients and snakes was reviewed by Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center herpetologists to evaluate what substance was expelled from the snake resulting in ocular exposure. Our review of rattlesnake encounters found a total of 26 ocular exposure cases. Patient demographics were largely intentional interactions and involved the male sex. Symptoms ranged from asymptomatic to minor effects with 46.2% managed from home and treated with fluid irrigation. A review of cases by herpetologists concluded the exposure patients commonly experienced was to snake musk. Kinematics of venom expulsion by rattlesnakes conclude the venom gland must be compressed, fangs erected to ≥60o, and fang sheath compressed against the roof of the mouth for venom expulsion. Evidence suggests the chance of venom "spitting" by rattlesnakes is close to zero. Rattlesnakes are documented to forcefully expel airborne malodorous "musk" defensively. An important distinction to remember is musk has a foul odor and is usually colorless, while venom is comparatively odorless and yellow. Rattlesnake venom-induced ophthalmia is a rare event as venom expulsion requires the kinematics of feeding or defensive bites. If the rattlesnake is not in the process of biting or otherwise contacting some other object with its mouth, it is more biologically plausible patients are being exposed to snake musk as a deterrent. Whether it's venom or musk, topical exposure to the eyes should prompt immediate irrigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thom S Maciulewicz
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, 1295 North Martin Avenue, Tucson, AZ, USA.
| | - Michael D Cardwell
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, 1295 North Martin Avenue, Tucson, AZ, USA; Department of Biology, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA, USA.
| | - Kevin Brandecker
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, 1501 North Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ, USA.
| | - Daniel J Massey
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, 1295 North Martin Avenue, Tucson, AZ, USA.
| | - Farshad Mazda Shirazi
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, 1295 North Martin Avenue, Tucson, AZ, USA; Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, 1501 North Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ, USA.
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Description of a New Cobra ( Naja Laurenti, 1768; Squamata, Elapidae) from China with Designation of a Neotype for Naja atra. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12243481. [PMID: 36552401 PMCID: PMC9774835 DOI: 10.3390/ani12243481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Taxonomic frameworks for medically important species such as cobras (genus Naja Laurenti, 1768; Squamata, Elapidae) are essential for the medical treatment of snake bites and accurate antivenin development. In this paper, we described the former N. kaouthia populations recorded from China as a new species and designated a neotype for N. atra-based morphological and mitochondrial phylogenetic analysis. The new species N. fuxisp. nov. was morphologically diagnosed from N. kaouthia by (1) regular single narrow crossband present on the middle and posterior parts of the dorsum (3-15, 7.9 ± 2.7, n = 32) and the dorsal surface of the tail (1-6, 4.2 ± 1.1, n = 32) of both adults and juveniles, buff-colored with dark fringes on both edges, vs. South Asian populations (n = 39) and Southeast Asian populations (n = 35) without cross bands, with irregular cross bands or multiple light-colored crossbands pairs, or densely woven lines; (2) small scales between the posterior chin shields, usually three (40%) or two (37%), rarely four (13%), or one (10%) (n = 30) vs. mostly one (81%) and rarely two (19%) (n = 28); (3) ventrals 179-205 (195.4 ± 6.7, n = 33) vs. South Asian populations 179-199 (188.7 ± 5.9, n = 12); Southeast Asian populations 168-186 (177.8 ± 4.9, n = 18). Phylogenetically, the new species forms an independent sister clade to the clade including N. atra, N. kaouthia, N. oxiana and N. sagittifera. Furthermore, the subspecies N. naja polyocellata should be resurrected and recognized as a full species, N. polyocellatacomb. nov., and the subspecies N. sumatrana miolepis should be resurrected.
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Jensen GW, van der Smagt P, Luksch H, Straka H, Kohl T. Chronic Multi-Electrode Electromyography in Snakes. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 15:761891. [PMID: 35069138 PMCID: PMC8777293 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.761891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowledge about body motion kinematics and underlying muscle contraction dynamics usually derives from electromyographic (EMG) recordings. However, acquisition of such signals in snakes is challenging because electrodes either attached to or implanted beneath the skin may unintentionally be removed by force or friction caused from undulatory motion, thus severely impeding chronic EMG recordings. Here, we present a reliable method for stable subdermal implantation of up to eight bipolar electrodes above the target muscles. The mechanical stability of the inserted electrodes and the overnight coverage of the snake body with a “sleeping bag” ensured the recording of reliable and robust chronic EMG activity. The utility of the technique was verified by daily acquisition of high signal-to-noise activity from all target sites over four consecutive days during stimulus-evoked postural reactions in Amazon tree boas and Western diamondback rattlesnakes. The successful demonstration of the chronic recording suggests that this technique can improve acute experiments by enabling the collection of larger data sets from single individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grady W. Jensen
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN-LMU), Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
- ARGMAX.AI Volkswagen Group Machine Learning Research Lab, Munich, Germany
| | - Patrick van der Smagt
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN-LMU), Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
- ARGMAX.AI Volkswagen Group Machine Learning Research Lab, Munich, Germany
- Department of Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Informatics, Eötvös Lórand University, Budapest, Germany
| | - Harald Luksch
- Chair of Zoology, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Hans Straka
- Department Biology II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Tobias Kohl
- Chair of Zoology, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
- *Correspondence: Tobias Kohl
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5
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravikar Ralph
- Department of Internal Medicine, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, 632004, India
| | | | - Sanjib Kumar Sharma
- Department of Internal Medicine, B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, 76500, Nepal
| | - Isabela Ribeiro
- Dynamic Portfolio, Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative (DNDi), 15 Chemin Louis-Dunant, 1202, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - François Chappuis
- Division of Tropical and Humanitarian Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Rue Gabrielle-Perret-Gentil 6, Geneva, CH 1211, Switzerland
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6
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The beneficial roles of poisonous skin secretions in survival strategies of the odorous frog Odorrana andersonii. Naturwissenschaften 2021; 109:4. [PMID: 34874458 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-021-01776-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of predatory, anti-predatory, and defensive strategies regarding environmental adaptation in animals is of significant research interest. In particular, amphibians, who represent a transition between aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates, play an important role in animal evolution. The bioactive skin secretions of amphibians are of specific interest due to their involvement in the crucial physiological functions of amphibian skin. We previously isolated and identified several bioactive peptides, including those showing antioxidant, antimicrobial, and wound-healing properties, from the skin secretions of the odorous frog species Odorrana andersonii. Currently, however, the biological significance of skin secretions in O. andersonii survival remains unclear. Here, we studied the biological significance of skin glands and secretions in regard to environmental adaptations of O. andersonii. Our research found that O. andersonii may secrete and excrete bioactive secretions through many glands (peptides and proteins as the main components in glands) distributed in the skin. The skin secretions not only displayed toxicity but also showed antioxidant, antibacterial, and repair promoting activities, suggesting that they play a protective role in O. andersonii when facing environmental threats. These bioactive skin secretions appear to act as a chemical survival strategy in O. andersonii, allowing the species to gain advantages in survival behavior.
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Avella I, Barajas-Ledesma E, Casewell NR, Harrison RA, Rowley PD, Crittenden E, Wüster W, Castiglia R, Holland C, van der Meijden A. Unexpected lack of specialisation in the flow properties of spitting cobra venom. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:238100. [PMID: 33827968 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.229229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Venom spitting is a defence mechanism based on airborne venom delivery used by a number of different African and Asian elapid snake species ('spitting cobras'; Naja spp. and Hemachatus spp.). Adaptations underpinning venom spitting have been studied extensively at both behavioural and morphological level in cobras, but the role of the physical properties of venom itself in its effective projection remains largely unstudied. We hereby provide the first comparative study of the physical properties of venom in spitting and non-spitting cobras. We measured the viscosity, protein concentration and pH of the venom of 13 cobra species of the genus Naja from Africa and Asia, alongside the spitting elapid Hemachatus haemachatus and the non-spitting viper Bitis arietans By using published microCT scans, we calculated the pressure required to eject venom through the fangs of a spitting and a non-spitting cobra. Despite the differences in the modes of venom delivery, we found no significant differences between spitters and non-spitters in the rheological and physical properties of the studied venoms. Furthermore, all analysed venoms showed a Newtonian flow behaviour, in contrast to previous reports. Although our results imply that the evolution of venom spitting did not significantly affect venom viscosity, our models of fang pressure suggests that the pressure requirements to eject venom are lower in spitting cobras than in non-spitting cobras.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignazio Avella
- CIBIO/InBIO - Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos da Universidade do Porto, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal
| | - Edgar Barajas-Ledesma
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Robert A Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Paul D Rowley
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Edouard Crittenden
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Riccardo Castiglia
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie 'Charles Darwin', Università di Roma 'La Sapienza', 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Chris Holland
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
| | - Arie van der Meijden
- CIBIO/InBIO - Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos da Universidade do Porto, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal
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Schuster S. Hunting in archerfish - an ecological perspective on a remarkable combination of skills. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:221/24/jeb159723. [PMID: 30530768 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.159723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Archerfish are well known for using jets of water to dislodge distant aerial prey from twigs or leaves. This Review gives a brief overview of a number of skills that the fish need to secure prey with their shooting technique. Archerfish are opportunistic hunters and, even in the wild, shoot at artificial objects to determine whether these are rewarding. They can detect non-moving targets and use efficient search strategies with characteristics of human visual search. Their learning of how to engage targets can be remarkably efficient and can show impressive degrees of generalization, including learning from observation. In other cases, however, the fish seem unable to learn and it requires some understanding of the ecological and biophysical constraints to appreciate why. The act of shooting has turned out not to be of a simple all-or-none character. Rather, the fish adjust the volume of water fired according to target size and use fine adjustments in the timing of their mouth opening and closing manoeuvre to adjust the hydrodynamic stability of their jets to target distance. As soon as prey is dislodged and starts falling, the fish make rapid and yet sophisticated multi-dimensional decisions to secure their prey against many intraspecific and interspecific competitors. Although it is not known why and how archerfish evolved an ability to shoot in the first place, I suggest that the evolution of shooting has strongly pushed the co-evolution of diverse other skills that are needed to secure a catch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Schuster
- Department of Animal Physiology, University of Bayreuth, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
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Panagides N, Jackson TNW, Ikonomopoulou MP, Arbuckle K, Pretzler R, Yang DC, Ali SA, Koludarov I, Dobson J, Sanker B, Asselin A, Santana RC, Hendrikx I, van der Ploeg H, Tai-A-Pin J, van den Bergh R, Kerkkamp HMI, Vonk FJ, Naude A, Strydom MA, Jacobsz L, Dunstan N, Jaeger M, Hodgson WC, Miles J, Fry BG. How the Cobra Got Its Flesh-Eating Venom: Cytotoxicity as a Defensive Innovation and Its Co-Evolution with Hooding, Aposematic Marking, and Spitting. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E103. [PMID: 28335411 PMCID: PMC5371858 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9030103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Revised: 02/19/2017] [Accepted: 03/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The cytotoxicity of the venom of 25 species of Old World elapid snake was tested and compared with the morphological and behavioural adaptations of hooding and spitting. We determined that, contrary to previous assumptions, the venoms of spitting species are not consistently more cytotoxic than those of closely related non-spitting species. While this correlation between spitting and non-spitting was found among African cobras, it was not present among Asian cobras. On the other hand, a consistent positive correlation was observed between cytotoxicity and utilisation of the defensive hooding display that cobras are famous for. Hooding and spitting are widely regarded as defensive adaptations, but it has hitherto been uncertain whether cytotoxicity serves a defensive purpose or is somehow useful in prey subjugation. The results of this study suggest that cytotoxicity evolved primarily as a defensive innovation and that it has co-evolved twice alongside hooding behavior: once in the Hemachatus + Naja and again independently in the king cobras (Ophiophagus). There was a significant increase of cytotoxicity in the Asian Naja linked to the evolution of bold aposematic hood markings, reinforcing the link between hooding and the evolution of defensive cytotoxic venoms. In parallel, lineages with increased cytotoxicity but lacking bold hood patterns evolved aposematic markers in the form of high contrast body banding. The results also indicate that, secondary to the evolution of venom rich in cytotoxins, spitting has evolved three times independently: once within the African Naja, once within the Asian Naja, and once in the Hemachatus genus. The evolution of cytotoxic venom thus appears to facilitate the evolution of defensive spitting behaviour. In contrast, a secondary loss of cytotoxicity and reduction of the hood occurred in the water cobra Naja annulata, which possesses streamlined neurotoxic venom similar to that of other aquatic elapid snakes (e.g., hydrophiine sea snakes). The results of this study make an important contribution to our growing understanding of the selection pressures shaping the evolution of snake venom and its constituent toxins. The data also aid in elucidating the relationship between these selection pressures and the medical impact of human snakebite in the developing world, as cytotoxic cobras cause considerable morbidity including loss-of-function injuries that result in economic and social burdens in the tropics of Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadya Panagides
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Maria P Ikonomopoulou
- QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049, Australia.
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4002, Australia.
| | - Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK.
| | - Rudolf Pretzler
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Daryl C Yang
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Syed A Ali
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
- HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences (ICCBS), University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan.
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - James Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Brittany Sanker
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Angelique Asselin
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Renan C Santana
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Iwan Hendrikx
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Harold van der Ploeg
- Working Group Adder Research Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Jeremie Tai-A-Pin
- Working Group Venomous Bites Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Harald M I Kerkkamp
- Institute of Biology Leiden (IBL), Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Freek J Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Arno Naude
- Snakebite Assist, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa.
| | - Morné A Strydom
- Department Pharmacology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa.
- SYNEXUS Clinical Research SA Pty Ltd., Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa.
| | - Louis Jacobsz
- Zoology Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa.
| | - Nathan Dunstan
- Venom Supplies, Tanunda, South Australia 5352, Australia.
| | - Marc Jaeger
- Planet Exotica, 5 Avenue des Fleurs de la Paix, 17204 Royan, France.
| | - Wayne C Hodgson
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - John Miles
- QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049, Australia.
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4002, Australia.
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD 4878, Australia.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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Arbuckle K. Evolutionary Context of Venom in Animals. EVOLUTION OF VENOMOUS ANIMALS AND THEIR TOXINS 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-6458-3_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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11
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Evolution of the Snake Venom Delivery System. EVOLUTION OF VENOMOUS ANIMALS AND THEIR TOXINS 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-6458-3_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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Nisani Z, Hayes WK. Venom-spraying behavior of the scorpion Parabuthus transvaalicus (Arachnida: Buthidae). Behav Processes 2015; 115:46-52. [PMID: 25748565 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2015.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Revised: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Many animals use chemical squirting or spraying behavior as a defensive response. Some members of the scorpion genus Parabuthus (family Buthidae) can spray their venom. We examined the stimulus control and characteristics of venom spraying by Parabuthus transvaalicus to better understand the behavioral context for its use. Venom spraying occurred mostly, but not always, when the metasoma (tail) was contacted (usually grasped by forceps), and was absent during stinging-like thrusts of the metasoma apart from contact. Scorpions were significantly more likely to spray when contact was also accompanied by airborne stimuli. Sprays happened almost instantaneously following grasping by forceps (median=0.23s) as a brief (0.07-0.30s, mean=0.18s), fine stream (<5° arc) that was not directed toward the stimulus source; however, rapid independent movements of the metasoma and/or telson (stinger) often created a more diffuse spray, increasing the possibility of venom contact with the sensitive eyes of potential scorpion predators. Successive venom sprays varied considerably in duration and velocity. Collectively, these results suggest that venom spraying might be useful as an antipredator function and can be modulated based on threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zia Nisani
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA.
| | - William K Hayes
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
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3D flow in the venom channel of a spitting cobra: do the ridges in the fangs act as fluid guide vanes? PLoS One 2013; 8:e61548. [PMID: 23671569 PMCID: PMC3645995 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 03/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The spitting cobra Naja pallida can eject its venom towards an offender from a distance of up to two meters. The aim of this study was to understand the mechanisms responsible for the relatively large distance covered by the venom jet although the venom channel is only of micro-scale. Therefore, we analysed factors that influence secondary flow and pressure drop in the venom channel, which include the physical-chemical properties of venom liquid and the morphology of the venom channel. The cobra venom showed shear-reducing properties and the venom channel had paired ridges that span from the last third of the channel to its distal end, terminating laterally and in close proximity to the discharge orifice. To analyze the functional significance of these ridges we generated a numerical and an experimental model of the venom channel. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and Particle-Image Velocimetry (PIV) revealed that the paired interior ridges shape the flow structure upstream of the sharp 90° bend at the distal end. The occurrence of secondary flow structures resembling Dean-type vortical structures in the venom channel can be observed, which induce additional pressure loss. Comparing a venom channel featuring ridges with an identical channel featuring no ridges, one can observe a reduction of pressure loss of about 30%. Therefore it is concluded that the function of the ridges is similar to guide vanes used by engineers to reduce pressure loss in curved flow channels.
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Fry BG, Casewell NR, Wüster W, Vidal N, Young B, Jackson TNW. The structural and functional diversification of the Toxicofera reptile venom system. Toxicon 2012; 60:434-48. [PMID: 22446061 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2012] [Revised: 02/23/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The evolutionary origin and diversification of the reptilian venom system is described. The resolution of higher-order molecular phylogenetics has clearly established that a venom system is ancestral to snakes. The diversification of the venom system within lizards is discussed, as is the role of venom delivery in the behavioural ecology of these taxa (particularly Varanus komodoensis). The more extensive diversification of the venom system in snakes is summarised, including its loss in some clades. Finally, we discuss the contentious issue of a definition for "venom", supporting an evolutionary definition that recognises the homology of both the venom delivery systems and the toxins themselves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Research Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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Chu ER, Weinstein SA, White J, Warrell DA. Venom ophthalmia caused by venoms of spitting elapid and other snakes: Report of ten cases with review of epidemiology, clinical features, pathophysiology and management. Toxicon 2010; 56:259-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2009] [Revised: 02/10/2010] [Accepted: 02/18/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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16
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Westhoff G, Boetig M, Bleckmann H, Young BA. Target tracking during venom 'spitting' by cobras. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 213:1797-802. [PMID: 20472765 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.037135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Spitting cobras, which defend themselves by streaming venom towards the face and/or eyes of a predator, must be highly accurate because the venom they spit is only an effective deterrent if it lands on the predator's cornea. Several factors make this level of accuracy difficult to achieve; the target is moving, is frequently >1 m away from the snake and the venom stream is released in approximately 50 ms. In the present study we show that spitting cobras can accurately track the movements of a potentially threatening vertebrate, and by anticipating its subsequent (short-term) movements direct their venom to maximize the likelihood of striking the target's eye. Unlike other animals that project material, in spitting cobras the discharge orifice (the fang) is relatively fixed so directing the venom stream requires rapid movements of the entire head. The cobra's ability to track and anticipate the target's movement, and to perform rapid cephalic oscillations that coordinate with the target's movements suggest a level of neural processing that has not been attributed to snakes, or other reptiles, previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido Westhoff
- Institute of Zoology, University of Bonn, Bonn 53115, Germany
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17
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Abstract
Many snakes, particularly cobras, form as part of a defensive display, a hood, an active lateral expansion of their neck skin and underlying musculature and ribs. We identified muscle groups possibly involved in hooding based on their attachments on the specialized ribs of the neck. We then used a combination of morphology, kinematic analysis, morphometrics, electromyography and muscle stimulation to test hypotheses about the functional basis of hooding. We confirmed that hood protraction and erection is an active process that begins cranially and extends caudally, often in stages, through the combined action of several sets of muscles. One set of axial muscles (levator costae and supracostalis lateralis superior) coursing along a line of action to rib displacement are the prime erectors acting to lift the hood. However, a second set of muscles connecting ribs to skin primarily keep the skin taut, rather than to displace the ribs relative to the vertebrae. A third set of muscles coursing between ribs function primarily to transmit forces between adjacent ribs rather than to move ribs. The maintenance of the erect hood requires continued muscle activity. Hood relaxation is due to both active muscle contraction of a fourth set of axial muscles and to passive recoil events in the costovertebral ligaments. The shape of the fully erect hood is reflective of the morphometrics of the underlying ribs, while the duration and kinematics of hood erection and relaxation are related to the behavioral context of the display.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce A Young
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA 01854, USA.
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18
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Spitting cobras adjust their venom distribution to target distance. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2009; 195:753-7. [PMID: 19462171 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-009-0451-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2008] [Revised: 04/08/2009] [Accepted: 05/03/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
If threatened by a human, spitting cobras defend themselves by ejecting their venom toward the face of the antagonist. Circulating head movements of the cobra ensure that the venom is distributed over the face. To assure an optimal distribution of the venom, the amplitudes of head movements should decrease with increasing target distance. To find out whether cobras (Naja pallida and N. nigricollis) adjust their spitting behavior according to target distance we induced spitting from different distances and analyzed their spitting patterns. Our results show that the spray pattern of spitting cobras is not fixed. Instead the snake matches its venom distribution to the size of the target independent of target distance.
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19
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Young BA, Boetig M, Westhoff G. Functional bases of the spatial dispersal of venom during cobra "spitting". Physiol Biochem Zool 2009; 82:80-9. [PMID: 19046067 DOI: 10.1086/595589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Spitting cobras expulse venom toward the face and/or eyes of potential predators as part of their defensive repertoire. Evaluating the accuracy of the cobras is difficult because the spit venom does not land as a point but rather is distributed, in some cases widely, in complex geometric patterns on the surface of the target. The purpose of this study was to explore the functional bases of the venom's spatial distribution. Using a combination of spatial analysis of "caught" venom, morphology, high-speed digital videography, and electromyography (EMG), three hypothesis were evaluated. Two of these hypotheses--that the spatial distribution was due to differential venom pressure produced by the contractile activity of the adductor mandibulae externus superficiali and that the spatial distribution was produced by the morphology of the venom canal within the fang-were both rejected. The third hypothesis--that the spatial distribution was due to rapid rotational movements of the head about the vertebral column--was supported by analyses of EMG activity within the cervical axial muscles and by predictions of venom-distribution patterns based on these cephalic displacements. These results suggest that the ability to "spit" venom is a unique suite of specializations involving both the axial and the cephalic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce A Young
- Department of Biology, Washburn University, Topeka, Kansas 66621, USA.
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20
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Suter RB, Stratton GE. Spitting performance parameters and their biomechanical implications in the spitting spider, Scytodes thoracica. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2009; 9:1-15. [PMID: 20050781 PMCID: PMC3011943 DOI: 10.1673/031.009.6201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2008] [Accepted: 08/16/2008] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Spitting spiders Scytodes spp. subdue prey by entangling them at a distance with a mixture of silk, glue, and venom. Using high-speed videography and differential interference contrast microscopy, the performance parameters involved in spit ejection by Scytodes thoracica (Araneae, Scytodidae) were measured. These will ultimately need to be explained in biomechanical and fluid dynamic terms. It was found that the ejection of "spit" from the opening of the venom duct (near the proximal end of the fang) was orderly. It resulted in a pattern that scanned along a lateral-medial axis (due to fang oscillations) while traversing from ventral to dorsal (due to cheliceral elevation). Each lateral-to-medial sweep of a fang produced silk-borne beads of glue that were not present during each subsequent medial-to-lateral sweep. The ejection of "spit" was very rapid. A full scan (5-57 fang cycles, one upsweep of a chelicera) typically occupied less than 30 ms and involved fang oscillations at 278-1781 Hz. Ejection velocities were measured as high as 28.8 m/s. The "spit" was contractile. During the 0.2 s following ejection, silk shortened by 40-60% and the product of a full scan by both of the chelicerae could exert an aggregate contractile force of 0.1 - 0.3 mN. Based on these parameters, hypotheses are described concerning the biomechanical and fluid dynamic processes that could enable this kind of material ejection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B. Suter
- Department of Biology, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY 12604, USA
| | - Gail E. Stratton
- Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
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21
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Fry BG, Scheib H, van der Weerd L, Young B, McNaughtan J, Ramjan SFR, Vidal N, Poelmann RE, Norman JA. Evolution of an Arsenal. Mol Cell Proteomics 2008; 7:215-46. [PMID: 17855442 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m700094-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 265] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Venom is a key innovation underlying the evolution of advanced snakes (Caenophidia). Despite this, very little is known about venom system structural diversification, toxin recruitment event timings, or toxin molecular evolution. A multidisciplinary approach was used to examine the diversification of the venom system and associated toxins across the full range of the approximately 100 million-year-old advanced snake clade with a particular emphasis upon families that have not secondarily evolved a front-fanged venom system ( approximately 80% of the 2500 species). Analysis of cDNA libraries revealed complex venom transcriptomes containing multiple toxin types including three finger toxins, cobra venom factor, cysteine-rich secretory protein, hyaluronidase, kallikrein, kunitz, lectin, matrix metalloprotease, phospholipase A(2), snake venom metalloprotease/a disintegrin and metalloprotease, and waprin. High levels of sequence diversity were observed, including mutations in structural and functional residues, changes in cysteine spacing, and major deletions/truncations. Morphological analysis comprising gross dissection, histology, and magnetic resonance imaging also demonstrated extensive modification of the venom system architecture in non-front-fanged snakes in contrast to the conserved structure of the venom system within the independently evolved front-fanged elapid or viperid snakes. Further, a reduction in the size and complexity of the venom system was observed in species in which constriction has been secondarily evolved as the preferred method of prey capture or dietary preference has switched from live prey to eggs or to slugs/snails. Investigation of the timing of toxin recruitment events across the entire advanced snake radiation indicates that the evolution of advanced venom systems in three front-fanged lineages is associated with recruitment of new toxin types or explosive diversification of existing toxin types. These results support the role of venom as a key evolutionary innovation in the diversification of advanced snakes and identify a potential role for non-front-fanged venom toxins as a rich source for lead compounds for drug design and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan G Fry
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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22
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Wüster W, Crookes S, Ineich I, Mané Y, Pook CE, Trape JF, Broadley DG. The phylogeny of cobras inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences: evolution of venom spitting and the phylogeography of the African spitting cobras (Serpentes: Elapidae: Naja nigricollis complex). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2007; 45:437-53. [PMID: 17870616 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2007.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2006] [Revised: 07/13/2007] [Accepted: 07/30/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
We use phylogenetic analysis of 1333 bp of mitochondrial DNA sequence to investigate the phylogeny and historical biogeography of the cobra-like elapid snakes, with special reference to the evolution of spitting and the phylogeography of the African spitting cobras, a radiation widespread in open vegetational formations throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Our results suggest that spitting adaptations appear to have evolved three times in cobras, but alternative scenarios cannot be rejected. The Asiatic Naja are monophyletic and originate from a single colonization of Asia from Africa. The radiation of the African spitting Naja appears to date back to the early Miocene and many speciation events in the group predate the Pliocene expansion of grasslands and the radiation of large grazing mammals in Africa. The cladogenic events in this complex appear to have been triggered by both ecological changes and tectonic events associated with the formation and expansion of the African Rift Valley. Taxonomically, our data confirm the inclusion of Boulengerina and Paranaja within Naja, and reveal a clade of African rainforest cobras including N. melanoleuca, Paranaja multifasciata and Boulengerina that constitutes the sister clade of the African open-formation non-spitting cobras. Naja nigricollis is polyphyletic, and we therefore recognize N. nigricincta as a separate species, more closely related to N. ashei and N. mossambica than to N. nigricollis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Wüster
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
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23
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Vogel
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0338, USA.
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24
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Young BA, Kardong KV. Mechanisms controlling venom expulsion in the western diamondback rattlesnake,Crotalus atrox. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 307:18-27. [PMID: 17094108 DOI: 10.1002/jez.a.341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Although many studies have documented variation in the amount of venom expended during bites of venomous snakes, the mechanistic source of this variation remains uncertain. This study used experimental techniques to examine how two different features of the venom delivery system, the muscle surrounding the venom gland (the Compressor Glandulae in the rattlesnake) and the fang sheath, could influence venom flow in the western diamondback rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox. Differential contraction of the Compressor Glandulae explained only approximately 30% of the variation in venom flow. Lifting (compression) of the fang sheath as occurs during a normal strike produced marked increases in venom flow; these changes were closely correlated and exceed in magnitude by almost 10 x those recorded from the Compressor Glandulae alone. These results suggest that variation in these two aspects of the venom delivery system--both in terms of magnitude and temporal patterning--explain most of the observed variation in venom injection. The lack of functional or mechanical links between the Compressor Glandulae and the fang sheath, and the lack of skeletal or smooth muscle within the fang sheath, make it unlikely that variation in venom flow is under direct neural control. Instead, differential venom injection results from differences in the pressurization by the Compressor Glandulae, the gate keeping effects of the fang sheath and enclosed soft-tissue chambers, and by differences in the pressure returned by peripheral resistance of the target tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce A Young
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4236, USA.
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25
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Westhoff G, Tzschätzsch K, Bleckmann H. The spitting behavior of two species of spitting cobras. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2005; 191:873-81. [PMID: 16007458 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-005-0010-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2004] [Revised: 04/08/2005] [Accepted: 04/14/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Spitting cobras defend themselves by spitting their venom in the face of a harasser. Although it is common belief that spitting cobras direct their venom at the eyes of an aggressor, this has never been investigated. Here, we show that the spitting act of cobras (Naja nigricollis and N. pallida) can readily be triggered by a moving human face or by a moving real size photo of a human face. In contrast, a stationary human face (real or photo) or a moving or stationary human hand does not trigger the spitting act. If threatened, spitting cobras aim their venom, ejected either in two distinct jets (N. pallida) or in a fine spray (N. nigricollis), either between the eyes or at one eye. In both cobra species investigated, the width and height of the area hit by the venom was independent of eye distance (test range 5.5 cm and 11 cm). During the spitting act the cobras performed fast undulating head movements that lead to a larger distribution of their venom. This behavior increases the probability that at least one eye of the aggressor is hit.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Westhoff
- Institute of Zoology, University of Bonn, Poppelsdorfer Schloss, Germany.
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