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Sahd L, Doubell N, Bennett NC, Kotzé SH. Muscle architecture and muscle fibre type composition in the forelimb of two African mole-rat species, Bathyergus suillus and Heterocephalus glaber. J Morphol 2023; 284:e21557. [PMID: 36630620 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The scratch-digging Cape dune mole-rat (Bathyergus suillus), and the chisel-toothed digging naked mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber) are African mole-rats that differ in their digging strategy. The aim of this study was to determine if these behavioural differences are reflected in the muscle architecture and fibre-type composition of the forelimb muscles. Muscle architecture parameters of 39 forelimb muscles in both species were compared. Furthermore, muscle fibre type composition of 21 forelimb muscles were analysed using multiple staining protocols. In B. suillus, muscles involved with the power stroke of digging (limb retractors and scapula elevators), showed higher muscle mass percentage, force output and shortening capacity compared to those in H. glaber. Additionally, significantly higher percentages of glycolytic fibres were observed in the scapular elevators and digital flexors of B. suillus compared to H. glaber, suggesting that the forelimb muscles involved in digging in B. suillus provide fast, powerful motions for effective burrowing. In contrast, the m. sternohyoideus a head and neck flexor, had significantly more oxidative fibres in H. glaber compared to B. suillus. In addition, significantly greater physiological cross-sectional area and fascicle length values were seen in the neck flexor, m. sternocleidomastoideus, in H. glaber compared to B. suillus, which indicates a possible adaptation for chisel-tooth digging. While functional demands may play a significant role in muscle morphology, the phylogenetic differences between the two species may play an additional role which needs further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Sahd
- Division of Clinical Anatomy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.,Evolutionary Developmental Biology Research Group, Department of Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Narusa Doubell
- Division of Clinical Anatomy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Nigel C Bennett
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Sanet H Kotzé
- Division of Clinical Anatomy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.,Division of Anatomy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis
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2
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McHenry MJ, Hedrick TL. The science and technology of kinematic measurements in a century of Journal of Experimental Biology. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:286615. [PMID: 36637450 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.245147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Kinematic measurements have been essential to the study of comparative biomechanics and offer insight into relationships between technological development and scientific progress. Here, we review the 100 year history of kinematic measurements in Journal of Experimental Biology (JEB) through eras that used film, analog video and digital video, and approaches that have circumvented the use of image capture. This history originated with the career of Sir James Gray and has since evolved over the generations of investigators that have followed. Although some JEB studies have featured technological developments that were ahead of their time, the vast majority of research adopted equipment that was broadly available through the consumer or industrial markets. We found that across eras, an emphasis on high-speed phenomena outpaced the growth of the number of articles published by JEB and the size of datasets increased significantly. Despite these advances, the number of species studied within individual reports has not differed significantly over time. Therefore, we find that advances in technology have helped to enable a growth in the number of JEB studies that have included kinematic measurements, contributed to an emphasis on high-speed phenomena, and yielded biomechanical studies that are more data rich, but are no more comparative now than in previous decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J McHenry
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology , University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Tyson L Hedrick
- Department of Biology , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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3
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Fernández Álvarez J, León Jurado JM, Navas González FJ, Iglesias Pastrana C, Delgado Bermejo JV. Applicability of an international linear appraisal system in Murciano-Granadina breed: fitting, zoometry correspondence inconsistencies, and improving strategies. ITALIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/1828051x.2022.2102544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Javier Fernández Álvarez
- aAsociación Nacional de Criadores de Caprino de Raza Murciano-Granadina (CAPRIGRAN), Fuente Vaqueros, Granada, Spain
| | | | - Francisco Javier Navas González
- Instituto de Investigación y Formación Agraria y Pesquera (IFAPA), Córdoba, Spain
- Departamento de Genética, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus Universitario Rabanales, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Carlos Iglesias Pastrana
- Departamento de Genética, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus Universitario Rabanales, Córdoba, Spain
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4
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Villacís Núñez CN, Ray AP, Cooper KL, Moore TY. Metatarsal fusion resisted bending as jerboas (Dipodidae) transitioned from quadrupedal to bipedal. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20221322. [PMID: 36196542 PMCID: PMC9532996 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.1322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Hind limbs undergo dramatic changes in loading conditions during the transition from quadrupedal to bipedal locomotion. For example, the most early diverging bipedal jerboas (Rodentia: Dipodidae) are some of the smallest mammals in the world, with body masses that range between 2–4 g. The larger jerboa species exhibit developmental and evolutionary fusion of the central three metatarsals into a single cannon bone. We hypothesize that small body size and metatarsal fusion are mechanisms to maintain the safety factor of the hind limb bones despite the higher ground reaction forces associated with bipedal locomotion. Using finite-element analysis to model collisions between the substrate and the metatarsals, we found that body size reduction was insufficient to reduce bone stress on unfused metatarsals, based on the scaled dynamics of larger jerboas, and that fused bones developed lower stresses than unfused bones when all metatarsals are scaled to the same size and loading conditions. Based on these results, we conclude that fusion reinforces larger jerboa metatarsals against high ground reaction forces. Because smaller jerboas with unfused metatarsals develop higher peak stresses in response to loading conditions scaled from larger jerboas, we hypothesize that smaller jerboas use alternative dynamics of bipedal locomotion to reduce the impact of collisions between the foot and substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew P. Ray
- Materials Science Engineering Department, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109, MI, USA
| | - Kimberly L. Cooper
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego 92093, CA, USA
| | - Talia Y. Moore
- Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109, MI, USA
- Robotics Department, Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Department, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109, MI, USA
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5
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MacLean KFE, Dickerson CR. Development of a comparative chimpanzee musculoskeletal glenohumeral model: implications for human function. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb225987. [PMID: 33071220 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.225987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Modern human shoulder function is affected by the evolutionary adaptations that have occurred to ensure survival and prosperity of the species. Robust examination of behavioral shoulder performance and injury risk can be holistically improved through an interdisciplinary approach that integrates anthropology and biomechanics. Coordination of these fields can allow different perspectives to contribute to a more complete interpretation of biomechanics of the modern human shoulder. The purpose of this study was to develop a novel biomechanical and comparative chimpanzee glenohumeral model, designed to parallel an existing human glenohumeral model, and compare predicted musculoskeletal outputs between the two models. The chimpanzee glenohumeral model consists of three modules - an external torque module, a musculoskeletal geometric module and an internal muscle force prediction module. Together, these modules use postural kinematics, subject-specific anthropometrics, a novel shoulder rhythm, glenohumeral stability ratios, hand forces, musculoskeletal geometry and an optimization routine to estimate joint reaction forces and moments, subacromial space dimensions, and muscle and tissue forces. Using static postural data of a horizontal bimanual suspension task, predicted muscle forces and subacromial space were compared between chimpanzees and humans. Compared with chimpanzees, the human model predicted a 2 mm narrower subacromial space, deltoid muscle forces that were often double those of chimpanzees and a strong reliance on infraspinatus and teres minor (60-100% maximal force) over other rotator cuff muscles. These results agree with previous work on inter-species differences that inform basic human rotator cuff function and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen F E MacLean
- Division of Kinesiology, School of Health and Human Performance, Dalhousie University, 6260 South Street, Halifax, NS, Canada B3H 4R2
| | - Clark R Dickerson
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada N2L 3G1
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6
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Scholz C, Jahanshahi S, Ldov A, Löwen H. Inertial delay of self-propelled particles. Nat Commun 2018; 9:5156. [PMID: 30514839 PMCID: PMC6279816 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-07596-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The motion of self-propelled massive particles through a gaseous medium is dominated by inertial effects. Examples include vibrated granulates, activated complex plasmas and flying insects. However, inertia is usually neglected in standard models. Here, we experimentally demonstrate the significance of inertia on macroscopic self-propelled particles. We observe a distinct inertial delay between orientation and velocity of particles, originating from the finite relaxation times in the system. This effect is fully explained by an underdamped generalisation of the Langevin model of active Brownian motion. In stark contrast to passive systems, the inertial delay profoundly influences the long-time dynamics and enables new fundamental strategies for controlling self-propulsion in active matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Scholz
- Institut für Theoretische Physik II: Weiche Materie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Soudeh Jahanshahi
- Institut für Theoretische Physik II: Weiche Materie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Anton Ldov
- Institut für Theoretische Physik II: Weiche Materie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Hartmut Löwen
- Institut für Theoretische Physik II: Weiche Materie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
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7
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Böhmer C, Fabre AC, Herbin M, Peigné S, Herrel A. Anatomical Basis of Differences in Locomotor Behavior in Martens: AComparison of the Forelimb Musculature Between Two Sympatric Species ofMartes. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:449-472. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.23742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Revised: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christine Böhmer
- UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHN, Bâtiment d'Anatomie Comparée, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; 55 rue Buffon, Paris, 75005 France
| | - Anne-Claire Fabre
- UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHN, Bâtiment d'Anatomie Comparée, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; 55 rue Buffon, Paris, 75005 France
| | - Marc Herbin
- UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHN, Bâtiment d'Anatomie Comparée, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; 55 rue Buffon, Paris, 75005 France
| | - Stéphane Peigné
- UMR 7207 CR 2P, MNHN/CNRS/UPMC, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CP38; 8 rue Buffon, Paris, 75005 France
| | - Anthony Herrel
- UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHN, Bâtiment d'Anatomie Comparée, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; 55 rue Buffon, Paris, 75005 France
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8
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Young JW, Shapiro LJ. Developments in development: What have we learned from primate locomotor ontogeny? AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 165 Suppl 65:37-71. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and NeurobiologyNortheast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED)Rootstown Ohio, 44272
| | - Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of TexasAustin Texas, 78712
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9
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Finestone EM, Brown MH, Ross SR, Pontzer H. Great ape walking kinematics: Implications for hominoid evolution. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 166:43-55. [PMID: 29313896 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Great apes provide a point of reference for understanding the evolution of locomotion in hominoids and early hominins. We assessed (1) the extent to which great apes use diagonal sequence, diagonal couplet gaits, like other primates, (2) the extent to which gait and posture vary across great apes, and (3) the role of body mass and limb proportions on ape quadrupedal kinematics. METHODS High-speed digital video of zoo-housed bonobos (Pan paniscus, N = 8), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes, N = 13), lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla, N = 13), and orangutans (Pongo spp. N = 6) walking over-ground at self-selected speeds were used to determine the timing of limb touch-down, take-off, and to measure joint and segment angles at touch-down, midstance, and take-off. RESULTS The great apes in our study showed broad kinematic and spatiotemporal similarity in quadrupedal walking. Size-adjusted walking speed was the strongest predictor of gait variables. Body mass had a negligible effect on variation in joint and segment angles, but stride frequency did trend higher among larger apes in analyses including size-adjusted speed. In contrast to most other primates, great apes did not favor diagonal sequence footfall patterns, but exhibited variable gait patterns that frequently shifted between diagonal and lateral sequences. CONCLUSION Similarities in the terrestrial walking kinematics of extant great apes likely reflect their similar post-cranial anatomy and proportions. Our results suggest that the walking kinematics of orthograde, suspensory Miocene ape species were likely similar to living great apes, and highlight the utility of videographic and behavioral data in interpreting primate skeletal morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma M Finestone
- Department of Anthropology, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, New York 10016.,New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology (NYCEP), New York, New York
| | - Mary H Brown
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, Ilinois 60614
| | - Stephen R Ross
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, Ilinois 60614
| | - Herman Pontzer
- Department of Anthropology, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, New York 10016.,New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology (NYCEP), New York, New York.,Department of Anthropology, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, New York, 10065
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10
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Druelle F, Aerts P, D'Août K, Moulin V, Berillon G. Segmental morphometrics of the olive baboon (Papio anubis): a longitudinal study from birth to adulthood. J Anat 2017; 230:805-819. [PMID: 28294323 PMCID: PMC5442150 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The linear dimensions and inertial characteristics of the body are important in locomotion and they change considerably during the ontogeny of animals, including humans. This longitudinal and ontogenetic study has produced the largest dataset to date of segmental morphometrics in a Catarrhini species, the olive baboon. The objectives of the study were to quantify the changes in body linear and inertial dimensions and to explore their (theoretical) mechanical significance for locomotion. We took full-body measurements of captive individuals at regular intervals. Altogether, 14 females and 16 males were followed over a 7-year period, i.e. from infancy to adulthood. Our results show that individual patterns of growth are very consistent and follow the general growth pattern previously described in olive baboons. Furthermore, we obtained similar growth curve structures for segment lengths and masses, although the respective time scales were slightly different. The most significant changes in body morphometrics occurred during the first 2 years of life and concerned the distal parts of the body. Females and males were similar in size and shape at birth. The rate and duration of growth produced substantial size-related differences throughout ontogeny, while body shapes remained very similar between the sexes. We also observed significant age-related variations in limb composition, with a proximal shift of the centre of mass within the limbs, mainly due to changes in mass distribution and in the length of distal segments. Finally, we observed what we hypothesize to be 'early biomechanical optimization' of the limbs for quadrupedal walking. This is due to a high degree of convergence between the limbs' natural pendular periods in infants, which may facilitate the onset of quadrupedal walking. Furthermore, the mechanical significance of the morphological changes observed in growing baboons may be related to changing functional demands with the onset of autonomous (quadrupedal) locomotion. From a wider perspective, these data provide unique insights into questions surrounding both the processes of locomotor development in primates and how these processes might evolve.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyBiology DepartmentUniversity of AntwerpAntwerpBelgium
- Département de PréhistoireMusée de l'HommeUMR 7194 CNRS‐MNHNParisFrance
- Primatology StationUPS 846 CNRSRousset‐sur‐ArcFrance
| | - Peter Aerts
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyBiology DepartmentUniversity of AntwerpAntwerpBelgium
- Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human MovementDepartment of Movement and Sport SciencesUniversity of GhentGhentBelgium
| | - Kristiaan D'Août
- Institute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | | | - Gilles Berillon
- Département de PréhistoireMusée de l'HommeUMR 7194 CNRS‐MNHNParisFrance
- Primatology StationUPS 846 CNRSRousset‐sur‐ArcFrance
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11
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Zeininger A, Shapiro LJ, Raichlen DA. Ontogenetic changes in limb postures and their impact on effective limb length in baboons (P
apio cynocephalus
). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 163:231-241. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Revised: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Angel Zeininger
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology; Duke University; Box 90383 Durham North Carolina 27708
| | - Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology; The University of Texas at Austin; 2201 Speedway C3200 Austin Texas 78712
| | - David A. Raichlen
- School of Anthropology; The University of Arizona; 1009 E. South Campus Dr Tucson Arizona 85721
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12
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Kilbourne BM, Andrada E, Fischer MS, Nyakatura JA. Morphology and motion: hindlimb proportions and swing phase kinematics in terrestrially locomoting charadriiform birds. J Exp Biol 2016; 219:1405-16. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.124081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Differing limb proportions in terms of length and mass, as well as differences in mass being concentrated proximally or distally, influence the limb's moment of inertia (MOI), which represents its resistance to being swung. Limb morphology—including limb segment proportions—thus likely has direct relevance for the metabolic cost of swinging the limb during locomotion. However, it remains largely unexplored how differences in limb proportions influence limb kinematics during swing phase. To test whether differences in limb proportions are associated with differences in swing phase kinematics, we collected hindlimb kinematic data from three species of charadriiform birds differing widely in their hindlimb proportions: lapwings, oystercatchers, and avocets. Using these three species, we tested for differences in maximum joint flexion, maximum joint extension, and range of motion (RoM), in addition to differences in maximum segment angular velocity and excursion. We found that the taxa with greater limb MOI—oystercatchers and avocets—flex their limbs more than lapwings. However, we found no consistent differences in joint extension and RoM among species. Likewise, we found no consistent differences in limb segment angular velocity and excursion, indicating that differences in limb inertia in these three avian species do not necessarily underlie the rate or extent of limb segment movements. The observed increased limb flexion among these taxa with distally heavy limbs resulted in reduced MOI of the limb when compared to a neutral pose. A trade-off between exerting force to actively flex the limb and potential savings by a reduction of MOI is skewed towards reducing the limb's MOI due to MOI being in part a function of the radius of gyration squared. Increased limb flexion likely is a means to lower the cost of swinging the limbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon M. Kilbourne
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Erbertstraße 1, 00743 Jena, Germany
- College for Life Sciences, Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, 14193 Berlin, Germany
- Museum für Naturkunde Berlin, Invalidenstraße 43, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Emanuel Andrada
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Erbertstraße 1, 00743 Jena, Germany
| | - Martin S. Fischer
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Erbertstraße 1, 00743 Jena, Germany
| | - John A. Nyakatura
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Erbertstraße 1, 00743 Jena, Germany
- Image Knowledge Gestaltung—an Interdisciplinary Laboratory, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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13
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Kilbourne BM, Hoffman LC. Energetic benefits and adaptations in mammalian limbs: Scale effects and selective pressures. Evolution 2015; 69:1546-1559. [PMID: 25929545 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Differences in limb size and shape are fundamental to mammalian morphological diversity; however, their relevance to locomotor costs has long been subject to debate. In particular, it remains unknown if scale effects in whole limb morphology could partially underlie decreasing mass-specific locomotor costs with increasing limb length. Whole fore- and hindlimb inertial properties reflecting limb size and shape-moment of inertia (MOI), mass, mass distribution, and natural frequency-were regressed against limb length for 44 species of quadrupedal mammals. Limb mass, MOI, and center of mass position are negatively allometric, having a strong potential for lowering mass-specific locomotor costs in large terrestrial mammals. Negative allometry of limb MOI results in a 40% reduction in MOI relative to isometry's prediction for our largest sampled taxa. However, fitting regression residuals to adaptive diversification models reveals that codiversification of limb mass, limb length, and body mass likely results from selection for differing locomotor modes of running, climbing, digging, and swimming. The observed allometric scaling does not result from selection for energetically beneficial whole limb morphology with increasing size. Instead, our data suggest that it is a consequence of differing morphological adaptations and body size distributions among quadrupedal mammals, highlighting the role of differing limb functions in mammalian evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon M Kilbourne
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, 1025 E 57th Street, Culver Hall 402, Chicago, Illinois, 60637.,Section of Earth Science, Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 S Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois, 60605.,College for Life Sciences, Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, 14193, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Animal Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Louwrens C Hoffman
- Department of Animal Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
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14
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An ontogenetic framework linking locomotion and trabecular bone architecture with applications for reconstructing hominin life history. J Hum Evol 2015; 81:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2013] [Revised: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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15
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Chirchir H. A comparative study of trabecular bone mass distribution in cursorial and non-cursorial limb joints. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2014; 298:797-809. [PMID: 25403099 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Revised: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal design among cursorial animals is a compromise between a stable body that can withstand locomotor stress and a light design that is energetically inexpensive to grow, maintain, and move. Cursors have been hypothesized to reduce distal musculoskeletal mass to maintain a balance between safety and energetic cost due to an exponential increase in energetic demand observed during the oscillation of the distal limb. Additionally, experimental research shows that the cortical bone in distal limbs experiences higher strains and remodeling rates, apparently maintaining lower mass at the expense of a smaller safety factor. This study tests the hypothesis that the trabecular bone mass in the distal limb epiphyses of cursors is relatively lower than that in the proximal limb epiphyses to minimize the energetic cost of moving the limb. This study utilized peripheral quantitative computed tomography scanning to measure the trabecular mass in the lower and upper limb epiphyses of hominids, cercopithecines, and felids that are considered cursorial and non-cursorial. One-way ANOVA with Tukey post hoc corrections was used to test for significant differences in trabecular mass across limb epiphyses. The results indicate that overall, both cursors and non-cursors exhibit varied trabecular mass in limb epiphyses and, in certain instances, conform to a proximal-distal decrease in mass irrespective of cursoriality. Specifically, hominid and cercopithecine hind limb epiphyses exhibit a proximal-distal decrease in mass irrespective of cursorial adaptations. These results suggest that cursorial mammals employ other energy saving mechanisms to minimize energy costs during running.
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Affiliation(s)
- Habiba Chirchir
- Human Origins Program, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, 20013; Center for the Advanced Study of Hominid Paleobiology, George Washington University, Washington, DC, 20052
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Anvari Z, Berillon G, Asgari Khaneghah A, Grimaud-Herve D, Moulin V, Nicolas G. Kinematics and spatiotemporal parameters of infant-carrying in olive baboons. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2014; 155:392-404. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zohreh Anvari
- UPR2147, CNRS; Paris France
- Centre for Social Study and Research, Tehran University; Tehran Iran
- UMR 7194, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; Paris France
| | | | | | | | - Valérie Moulin
- Primatology Station, UPS846 CNRS; Rousset-sur-Arc France
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Raichlen DA, Pontzer H, Shapiro LJ. A new look at the Dynamic Similarity Hypothesis: the importance of swing phase. Biol Open 2013; 2:1032-6. [PMID: 24167713 PMCID: PMC3798186 DOI: 10.1242/bio.20135165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Dynamic Similarity Hypothesis (DSH) suggests that when animals of different size walk at similar Froude numbers (equal ratios of inertial and gravitational forces) they will use similar size-corrected gaits. This application of similarity theory to animal biomechanics has contributed to fundamental insights in the mechanics and evolution of a diverse set of locomotor systems. However, despite its popularity, many mammals fail to walk with dynamically similar stride lengths, a key element of gait that determines spontaneous speed and energy costs. Here, we show that the applicability of the DSH is dependent on the inertial forces examined. In general, the inertial forces are thought to be the centripetal force of the inverted pendulum model of stance phase, determined by the length of the limb. If instead we model inertial forces as the centripetal force of the limb acting as a suspended pendulum during swing phase (determined by limb center of mass position), the DSH for stride length variation is fully supported. Thus, the DSH shows that inter-specific differences in spatial kinematics are tied to the evolution of limb mass distribution patterns. Selection may act on morphology to produce a given stride length, or alternatively, stride length may be a "spandrel" of selection acting on limb mass distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Raichlen
- School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, PO Box 210030, Tucson, AZ 85721-00030, USA
| | - Herman Pontzer
- Department of Anthropology, Hunter College, 695 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
- New York Consortium for Evolutionary Primatology, New York, USA
| | - Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Avenue, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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Dlugosz EM, Chappell MA, McGillivray DG, Syme DA, Garland T. Locomotor trade-offs in mice selectively bred for high voluntary wheel running. J Exp Biol 2009; 212:2612-8. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.029058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
We investigated sprint performance and running economy of a unique`mini-muscle' phenotype that evolved in response to selection for high voluntary wheel running in laboratory mice (Mus domesticus). Mice from four replicate selected (S) lines run nearly three times as far per day as four control lines. The mini-muscle phenotype, resulting from an initially rare autosomal recessive allele, has been favoured by the selection protocol,becoming fixed in one of the two S lines in which it occurred. In homozygotes,hindlimb muscle mass is halved, mass-specific muscle oxidative capacity is doubled, and the medial gastrocnemius exhibits about half the mass-specific isotonic power, less than half the mass-specific cyclic work and power, but doubled fatigue resistance. We hypothesized that mini-muscle mice would have a lower whole-animal energy cost of transport (COT), resulting from lower costs of cycling their lighter limbs, and reduced sprint speed, from reduced maximal force production. We measured sprint speed on a racetrack and slopes(incremental COT, or iCOT) and intercepts of the metabolic rate versus speed relationship during voluntary wheel running in 10 mini-muscle and 20 normal S-line females. Mini-muscle mice ran faster and farther on wheels, but for less time per day. Mini-muscle mice had significantly lower sprint speeds, indicating a functional trade-off. However,contrary to predictions, mini-muscle mice had higher COT, mainly because of higher zero-speed intercepts and postural costs (intercept–resting metabolic rate). Thus, mice with altered limb morphology after intense selection for running long distances do not necessarily run more economically.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark A. Chappell
- Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521,USA
| | - David G. McGillivray
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta,Canada T2N 1N4
| | - Douglas A. Syme
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta,Canada T2N 1N4
| | - Theodore Garland
- Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521,USA
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Young JW. Ontogeny of joint mechanics in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis): functional implications for mammalian limb growth and locomotor development. J Exp Biol 2009; 212:1576-91. [PMID: 19411552 PMCID: PMC2777092 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.025460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Juvenile animals must often compete against adults for common resources, keep pace during group travel and evade common predators, despite reduced body size and an immature musculoskeletal system. Previous morphometric studies of a diverse array of mammals, including jack rabbits, cats and capuchin monkeys, have identified growth-related changes in anatomy, such as negative allometry of limb muscle mechanical advantage, which should theoretically permit young mammals to overcome such ontogenetic limits on performance. However, it is important to evaluate the potential impact of such ;compensatory' growth trajectories within the context of developmental changes in locomotor behavior. I used standard kinematic and kinetic techniques to investigate the ontogenetic scaling of joint postures, substrate reaction forces, joint load arm lengths and external joint moments in an ontogenetic sample of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis). Results indicated that young squirrel monkeys were frequently able to limit forelimb and hind limb joint loading via a combination of changes in limb posture and limb force distribution, potentially compensating for limited muscularity at younger ages. These results complement previous morphometric studies and suggest that immature mammals may utilize a combination of behavioral and anatomical mechanisms to mitigate ontogenetic limits on locomotor performance. However, ontogenetic changes in joint posture, not limb length per se, explained most of the variation in load arm lengths and joint loading in growing squirrel monkeys, indicating the importance of incorporating both anatomical and performance measures when studying the ontogeny of limb joint mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W Young
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
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20
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From bone to plausible bipedal locomotion. Part II: Complete motion synthesis for bipedal primates. J Biomech 2009; 42:1127-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2009.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2008] [Revised: 12/25/2008] [Accepted: 02/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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21
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Raichlen DA. The effects of gravity on human walking: a new test of the dynamic similarity hypothesis using a predictive model. J Exp Biol 2008; 211:2767-72. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.020073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARYThe dynamic similarity hypothesis (DSH) suggests that differences in animal locomotor biomechanics are due mostly to differences in size. According to the DSH, when the ratios of inertial to gravitational forces are equal between two animals that differ in size [e.g. at equal Froude numbers, where Froude =velocity2/(gravity × hip height)], their movements can be made similar by multiplying all time durations by one constant, all forces by a second constant and all linear distances by a third constant. The DSH has been generally supported by numerous comparative studies showing that as inertial forces differ (i.e. differences in the centripetal force acting on the animal due to variation in hip heights), animals walk with dynamic similarity. However, humans walking in simulated reduced gravity do not walk with dynamically similar kinematics. The simulated gravity experiments did not completely account for the effects of gravity on all body segments, and the importance of gravity in the DSH requires further examination. This study uses a kinematic model to predict the effects of gravity on human locomotion,taking into account both the effects of gravitational forces on the upper body and on the limbs. Results show that dynamic similarity is maintained in altered gravitational environments. Thus, the DSH does account for differences in the inertial forces governing locomotion (e.g. differences in hip height)as well as differences in the gravitational forces governing locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Raichlen
- Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, 1009 E. South Campus Drive, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
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22
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Plochocki JH, Rivera JP, Zhang C, Ebba SA. Bone modeling response to voluntary exercise in the hindlimb of mice. J Morphol 2008; 269:313-8. [PMID: 17957711 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.10587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The functional adaptation of juvenile mammalian limb bone to mechanical loading is necessary to maintain bone strength. Diaphyseal size and shape are modified during growth through the process of bone modeling. Although bone modeling is a well-documented response to increased mechanical stress on growing diaphyseal bone, the effect of proximodistal location on bone modeling remains unclear. Distal limb elements in cursorial mammals are longer and thinner, most likely to conserve energy during locomotion because they require less energy to move. Therefore, distal elements are hypothesized to experience greater mechanical loading during locomotion and may be expected to exhibit a greater modeling response to exercise. In this study, histomorphometric comparisons are made between femora and tibiae of mice treated with voluntary exercise and a control group (N = 20). We find that femora of exercised mice exhibit both greater bone growth rates and growth areas than do controls (P < 0.05). The femora of exercised mice also have significantly greater cortical area, bending rigidity, and torsional rigidity (P < 0.05), although bending and torsional rigidity are comparable when standardized by bone length. Histomorphometric and cross-section geometric properties of the tibial midshaft of exercised and control mice did not differ significantly, although tibial length was significantly greater in exercised mice (P < 0.05). Femora of exercised mice were able to adapt to increased mechanical loading through increases in compressive, bending, and torsional rigidity. No such adaptations were found in the tibia. It is unclear if this is a biomechanical adaptation to greater stress in proximal elements or if distal elements are ontogenetically constrained in a tradeoff of bone strength of distal elements for bioenergetic efficiency during locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey H Plochocki
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, Altoona, Pennsylvania 16601, USA.
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Schoonaert K, D'Août K, Aerts P. Morphometrics and inertial properties in the body segments of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). J Anat 2007; 210:518-31. [PMID: 17451529 PMCID: PMC2375742 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00720.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/29/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Inertial characteristics and dimensions of the body and body segments form an integral part of a biomechanical analysis of motion. In primate studies, however, segment inertial parameters of non-human hominoids are scarce and often obtained using varying techniques. Therefore, the principal aim of this study was to expand the existing chimpanzee inertial property data set using a non-invasive measuring technique. We also considered age- and sex-related differences within our sample. By means of a geometric model based on Crompton et al. (1996; Am J Phys Anthropol 99, 547-570) we generated inertial properties using external segment length and diameter measurements of 53 anaesthetized chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). We report absolute inertial parameters for immature and mature subjects and for males and females separately. Proportional data were computed to allow the comparison between age classes and sex classes. In addition, we calculated whole limb inertial properties and we discuss their potential biomechanical consequences. We found no significant differences between the age classes in the proportional data except for hand and foot measures where juveniles exhibit relatively longer and heavier distal segments than adults. Furthermore, most sex-related differences can be directly attributed to the higher absolute segment masses in male chimpanzees resulting in higher moments of inertia. Additionally, males tend to have longer upper limbs than females. However, regarding proportional data we discuss the general inertial properties of the chimpanzee. The described segment inertial parameters of males and females, and of the two age classes, represent a valuable data set ready for use in a range of biomechanical locomotor models. These models offer great potential for improving our understanding of early hominin locomotor patterns.
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