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Force Estimation during Cell Migration Using Mathematical Modelling. J Imaging 2022; 8:jimaging8070199. [PMID: 35877643 PMCID: PMC9320649 DOI: 10.3390/jimaging8070199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell migration is essential for physiological, pathological and biomedical processes such as, in embryogenesis, wound healing, immune response, cancer metastasis, tumour invasion and inflammation. In light of this, quantifying mechanical properties during the process of cell migration is of great interest in experimental sciences, yet few theoretical approaches in this direction have been studied. In this work, we propose a theoretical and computational approach based on the optimal control of geometric partial differential equations to estimate cell membrane forces associated with cell polarisation during migration. Specifically, cell membrane forces are inferred or estimated by fitting a mathematical model to a sequence of images, allowing us to capture dynamics of the cell migration. Our approach offers a robust and accurate framework to compute geometric mechanical membrane forces associated with cell polarisation during migration and also yields geometric information of independent interest, we illustrate one such example that involves quantifying cell proliferation levels which are associated with cell division, cell fusion or cell death.
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Garner RM, Skariah G, Hadjitheodorou A, Belliveau NM, Savinov A, Footer MJ, Theriot JA. Neutrophil-like HL-60 cells expressing only GFP-tagged β-actin exhibit nearly normal motility. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2020; 77:181-196. [PMID: 32072765 PMCID: PMC7383899 DOI: 10.1002/cm.21603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 12/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Observations of actin dynamics in living cells using fluorescence microscopy have been foundational in the exploration of the mechanisms underlying cell migration. We used CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing to generate neutrophil‐like HL‐60 cell lines expressing GFP‐β‐actin from the endogenous locus (ACTB). In light of many previous reports outlining functional deficiencies of labeled actin, we anticipated that HL‐60 cells would only tolerate a monoallelic edit, as biallelic edited cells would produce no normal β‐actin. Surprisingly, we recovered viable monoallelic GFP‐β‐actin cells as well as biallelic edited GFP‐β‐actin cells, in which one copy of the ACTB gene is silenced and the other contains the GFP tag. Furthermore, the edited cells migrate with similar speeds and persistence as unmodified cells in a variety of motility assays, and have nearly normal cell shapes. These results might partially be explained by our observation that GFP‐β‐actin incorporates into the F‐actin network in biallelic edited cells at similar efficiencies as normal β‐actin in unedited cells. Additionally, the edited cells significantly upregulate γ‐actin, perhaps helping to compensate for the loss of normal β‐actin. Interestingly, biallelic edited cells have only modest changes in global gene expression relative to the monoallelic line, as measured by RNA sequencing. While monoallelic edited cells downregulate expression of the tagged allele and are thus only weakly fluorescent, biallelic edited cells are quite bright and well‐suited for live cell microscopy. The nondisruptive phenotype and direct interpretability of this fluorescent tagging approach make it a promising tool for studying actin dynamics in these rapidly migrating and highly phagocytic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rikki M Garner
- Biophysics Program, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA.,Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Gemini Skariah
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Amalia Hadjitheodorou
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University Schools of Medicine and Engineering, Stanford, CA
| | - Nathan M Belliveau
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Andrew Savinov
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Matthew J Footer
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Julie A Theriot
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
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Okimura C, Sakumura Y, Shimabukuro K, Iwadate Y. Sensing of substratum rigidity and directional migration by fast-crawling cells. Phys Rev E 2018; 97:052401. [PMID: 29906928 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.97.052401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Living cells sense the mechanical properties of their surrounding environment and respond accordingly. Crawling cells detect the rigidity of their substratum and migrate in certain directions. They can be classified into two categories: slow-moving and fast-moving cell types. Slow-moving cell types, such as fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, mesenchymal stem cells, etc., move toward rigid areas on the substratum in response to a rigidity gradient. However, there is not much information on rigidity sensing in fast-moving cell types whose size is ∼10 μm and migration velocity is ∼10 μm/min. In this study, we used both isotropic substrata with different rigidities and an anisotropic substratum that is rigid on the x axis but soft on the y axis to demonstrate rigidity sensing by fast-moving Dictyostelium cells and neutrophil-like differentiated HL-60 cells. Dictyostelium cells exerted larger traction forces on a more rigid isotropic substratum. Dictyostelium cells and HL-60 cells migrated in the "soft" direction on the anisotropic substratum, although myosin II-null Dictyostelium cells migrated in random directions, indicating that rigidity sensing of fast-moving cell types differs from that of slow types and is induced by a myosin II-related process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chika Okimura
- Faculty of Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi 753-8512, Japan
| | - Yuichi Sakumura
- School of Information Science and Technology, Aichi Prefectural University, Aichi 480-1198, Japan.,Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Nara, 630-0192, Japan
| | - Katsuya Shimabukuro
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Ube College, Ube 755-8555, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Iwadate
- Faculty of Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi 753-8512, Japan
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Rotation of stress fibers as a single wheel in migrating fish keratocytes. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10615. [PMID: 30018412 PMCID: PMC6050267 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28875-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Crawling migration plays an essential role in a variety of biological phenomena, including development, wound healing, and immune system function. Keratocytes are wound-healing cells in fish skin. Expansion of the leading edge of keratocytes and retraction of the rear are respectively induced by actin polymerization and contraction of stress fibers in the same way as for other cell types. Interestingly, stress fibers in keratocytes align almost perpendicular to the migration-direction. It seems that in order to efficiently retract the rear, it is better that the stress fibers align parallel to it. From the unique alignment of stress fibers in keratocytes, we speculated that the stress fibers may play a role for migration other than the retraction. Here, we reveal that the stress fibers are stereoscopically arranged so as to surround the cytoplasm in the cell body; we directly show, in sequential three-dimensional recordings, their rolling motion during migration. Removal of the stress fibers decreased migration velocity and induced the collapse of the left-right balance of crawling migration. The rotation of these stress fibers plays the role of a “wheel” in crawling migration of keratocytes.
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Nakata T, Okimura C, Mizuno T, Iwadate Y. The Role of Stress Fibers in the Shape Determination Mechanism of Fish Keratocytes. Biophys J 2016; 110:481-492. [PMID: 26789770 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2015.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 12/13/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Crawling cells have characteristic shapes that are a function of their cell types. How their different shapes are determined is an interesting question. Fish epithelial keratocytes are an ideal material for investigating cell shape determination, because they maintain a nearly constant fan shape during their crawling locomotion. We compared the shape and related molecular mechanisms in keratocytes from different fish species to elucidate the key mechanisms that determine cell shape. Wide keratocytes from cichlids applied large traction forces at the rear due to large focal adhesions, and showed a spatially loose gradient associated with actin retrograde flow rate, whereas round keratocytes from black tetra applied low traction forces at the rear small focal adhesions and showed a spatially steep gradient of actin retrograde flow rate. Laser ablation of stress fibers (contractile fibers connected to rear focal adhesions) in wide keratocytes from cichlids increased the actin retrograde flow rate and led to slowed leading-edge extension near the ablated region. Thus, stress fibers might play an important role in the mechanism of maintaining cell shape by regulating the actin retrograde flow rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takako Nakata
- Faculty of Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Chika Okimura
- Faculty of Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Takafumi Mizuno
- Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
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Okimura C, Iwadate Y. Hybrid mechanosensing system to generate the polarity needed for migration in fish keratocytes. Cell Adh Migr 2016; 10:406-18. [PMID: 27124267 DOI: 10.1080/19336918.2016.1170268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Crawling cells can generate polarity for migration in response to forces applied from the substratum. Such reaction varies according to cell type: there are both fast- and slow-crawling cells. In response to periodic stretching of the elastic substratum, the intracellular stress fibers in slow-crawling cells, such as fibroblasts, rearrange themselves perpendicular to the direction of stretching, with the result that the shape of the cells extends in that direction; whereas fast-crawling cells, such as neutrophil-like differentiated HL-60 cells and Dictyostelium cells, which have no stress fibers, migrate perpendicular to the stretching direction. Fish epidermal keratocytes are another type of fast-crawling cell. However, they have stress fibers in the cell body, which gives them a typical slow-crawling cell structure. In response to periodic stretching of the elastic substratum, intact keratocytes rearrange their stress fibers perpendicular to the direction of stretching in the same way as fibroblasts and migrate parallel to the stretching direction, while blebbistatin-treated stress fiber-less keratocytes migrate perpendicular to the stretching direction, in the same way as seen in HL-60 cells and Dictyostelium cells. Our results indicate that keratocytes have a hybrid mechanosensing system that comprises elements of both fast- and slow-crawling cells, to generate the polarity needed for migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chika Okimura
- a Faculty of Science , Yamaguchi University , Yamaguchi , Japan
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Sonoda A, Okimura C, Iwadate Y. Shape and Area of Keratocytes Are Related to the Distribution and Magnitude of Their Traction Forces. Cell Struct Funct 2016; 41:33-43. [PMID: 26754329 DOI: 10.1247/csf.15008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Fish epidermal keratocytes maintain an overall fan shape during their crawling migration. The shape-determination mechanism has been described theoretically and experimentally on the basis of graded radial extension of the leading edge, but the relationship between shape and traction forces has not been clarified. Migrating keratocytes can be divided into fragments by treatment with the protein kinase inhibitor staurosporine. Fragments containing a nucleus and cytoplasm behave as mini-keratocytes and maintain the same fan shape as the original cells. We measured the shape of the leading edge, together with the areas of the ventral region and traction forces, of keratocytes and mini-keratocytes. The shapes of keratocytes and mini-keratocytes were similar. Mini-keratocytes exerted traction forces at the rear left and right ends, just like keratocytes. The magnitude of the traction forces was proportional to the area of the keratocytes and mini-keratocytes. The myosin II ATPase inhibitor blebbistatin decreased the forces at the rear left and right ends of the keratocytes and expanded their shape laterally. These results suggest that keratocyte shape depends on the distribution of the traction forces, and that the magnitude of the traction forces depends on the area of the cells.
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Nakashima H, Okimura C, Iwadate Y. The molecular dynamics of crawling migration in microtubule-disrupted keratocytes. Biophys Physicobiol 2015; 12:21-9. [PMID: 27493851 PMCID: PMC4736841 DOI: 10.2142/biophysico.12.0_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-crawling migration plays an essential role in complex biological phenomena. It is now generally believed that many processes essential to such migration are regulated by microtubules in many cells, including fibroblasts and neurons. However, keratocytes treated with nocodazole, which is an inhibitor of microtubule polymerization – and even keratocyte fragments that contain no microtubules – migrate at the same velocity and with the same directionality as normal keratocytes. In this study, we discovered that not only these migration properties, but also the molecular dynamics that regulate such properties, such as the retrograde flow rate of actin filaments, distributions of vinculin and myosin II, and traction forces, are also the same in nocodazole-treated keratocytes as those in untreated keratocytes. These results suggest that microtubules are not in fact required for crawling migration of keratocytes, either in terms of migrating properties or of intracellular molecular dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitomi Nakashima
- Faculty of Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi 753-8512, Japan
| | - Chika Okimura
- Faculty of Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi 753-8512, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Iwadate
- Faculty of Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi 753-8512, Japan
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Colombo L, Zoia L, Violatto MB, Previdi S, Talamini L, Sitia L, Nicotra F, Orlandi M, Salmona M, Recordati C, Bigini P, La Ferla B. Organ Distribution and Bone Tropism of Cellulose Nanocrystals in Living Mice. Biomacromolecules 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.5b00805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Colombo
- IRCCS-Istituto
di Ricerche Farmacologiche “Mario Negri”, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Zoia
- Department
of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza
della Scienza 1, 20126 Milan, Italy
| | | | - Sara Previdi
- IRCCS-Istituto
di Ricerche Farmacologiche “Mario Negri”, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Talamini
- IRCCS-Istituto
di Ricerche Farmacologiche “Mario Negri”, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Leopoldo Sitia
- IRCCS-Istituto
di Ricerche Farmacologiche “Mario Negri”, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Nicotra
- Department
of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza
della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Marco Orlandi
- Department
of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza
della Scienza 1, 20126 Milan, Italy
| | - Mario Salmona
- IRCCS-Istituto
di Ricerche Farmacologiche “Mario Negri”, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Camilla Recordati
- Mouse
and Animal Pathology Laboratory, Fondazione Filarete, Viale Ortles
22/4, 20139 Milano, Italy
| | - Paolo Bigini
- IRCCS-Istituto
di Ricerche Farmacologiche “Mario Negri”, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Barbara La Ferla
- Department
of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza
della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy
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Raz-Ben Aroush D, Yehudai-Resheff S, Keren K. Electrofusion of giant unilamellar vesicles to cells. Methods Cell Biol 2015; 125:409-22. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2014.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/24/2023]
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